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Due to their quantitative and qualitative potential, rural areas participate to a significant degree in the achievement of the indicative targets resulting from the climatic package. Thanks to the production of biomass and, increasingly often, energy itself during the 2005–2014 period, the share of RES (renewable energy sources) in the production of primary energy grew twofold from 5.8% to 12.1%. Biomass was the main source, but since 2010 the use of wind and sun in the production of energy has been growing rapidly. Given that the costs of alternative sources for energy production (mainly electricity) are considerably higher than in case of using raw fuels, the development of this market depends on the amount of subsidies. The system applied in Poland is widely criticized because it favours large hydroelectric power plants and co-combustion, which arouses considerable environmental, technical, market and strategic controversies. Maintaining the current support system could therefore have significant implications for the structure of the market, because it is not conducive to the development of energy, based on the initiative of citizens and their communities. It remains untapped economic potential also in industrial policy and services and, in particular, in case of RES small- and micro-installations.
Energetic analysis of different grassland management systems was carried out in 2003 at the Hruby Jesenik locality. The study aimed at evaluating the energy inputs and outputs (energy balance) on grassland of different utilization intensity. Four levels of utilization: extensive, low intensive, medium intensive and intensive, were considered. Applied nutrition and fertilization were as follows: A - PK 30 : 60 kg·ha⁻¹, B - NPK 90 : 30 : 60 kg·ha⁻¹, C - NPK 180 : 30 : 60 kg·ha⁻¹. In case of energy inputs the following data were recorded: used industrial and organic fertilizers in pure NPK nutrients (kg·ha⁻¹), the energy of engines (GJ·ha⁻¹), fuel consumption and the amount of human labour (man-hrs) per ha. The energy outputs included the biomass yield (t·ha⁻¹). On that basis the energy balance was made and energy gain and energy efficiency were calculated. Energy inputs ranged from 4.94 to 22.70 GJ·ha⁻¹. The highest energy requirement per production unit was noted at intensive and medium intensive and utilization. The highest energy gain was obtained at low intensive (x=128.21 GJ·ha⁻¹) and medium (123.18 GJ·ha⁻¹) utilization. At extensive utilization the average energy gain 112.18 GJ·ha⁻¹ was observed, while the lowest was achieved at intensively utilized vegetation (x = 102.09 GJ·ha⁻¹). From the viewpoint of energy gain and energy input intensity the utilization of grassland consisted in 3 or 2 cuts per year appeared to be most applicable.
Strawberry plants were grown in soilless culture under greenhouse conditions to investigate the effect of supplementary potassium fertilization on growth and development of plants exposed to high NaCl concentration (35 mmol/L). Treatments included: 1) nutrient solution alone (N); 2) N + 35 mmol/L NaCl (NS); 3) NS + 5 mmol/L K2SO4 (NSK1); 4) NS + 10 mmol/L K2SO4 (NSK2). Results showed that leaf area, ion leakage (EC), chlorophyll contents, biomass production and water usage were negatively affected by NaCl stress. Moreover, fruit set and fruit number decreased under stress condition. Mineral content (Na, Cl, Ca and K) in various plant parts increased upon NaCl stress. Although supplementary potassium fertilization positively influenced the leaf area development, chlorophyll contents and reproductive parameters, it had a negative effect on biomass production. On the other hand, in addition to K and Ca, supplementary potassium increased Na and Cl content. These results showed that potassium reduces some negative effects of NaCl stress in strawberry.
We studied vegetation diversity and standing biomass in relation to site moisture (moist, wet) and different management regimes (regularly mown (A), recently abandoned (B), un-mown for at least 15 years but with mowing re-introduced recently (C), and abandoned for at least 15 years without re-introduction of mowing (D)) on floodplain grasslands in Soomaa National Park, SW Estonia. A flexible quadrate size (area inhabited by 500 ramets) was used for the estimation of life-form distribution, species richness, ramet density and weight of standing biomass. The size of the actual species pool (Spool) was also estimated and relative richness (Srel500), mean plant unit area (PUA), plant unit biomass (PUB), ramet density per square metre and standing dry biomass per square metre were calculated. Additionally, changes in Estonian floodplain grassland vegetation between the 1960s and the 1990s were analysed by comparing the life-form distribution of frequent species on floodplain grasslands in the 1960s and 1990s. Life-form distribution depended both on moisture conditions and on the management regime. Tussock-forming graminoids dominated in regularly mown moist sites and long-term unmown wet sites, while mat-forming graminoids dominated in sites with irregular management. The proportion of herb ramets was highest in unmanaged moist sites without regular mowing. In general, the life-form composition of floodplain grassland flora has shifted from low-growing herbaceous plants to tall-growing herbaceous plants during the abandonment period (from 1960s to 1990s). The effect of site moisture on the standing biomass-species richness relation and PUA was not significant, but the effect of the management regime was notable. PUA varied tenfold (mean 2.6 cm² at moist sites with the management regime B but was 25.2 cm² at un-managed wet sites). Dry standing biomass varied threefold depending on the management regime (from 263 to 763 g m⁻²). Ramet density, PUA, PUB, Spool, and life-form distribution on plots with recently re-introduced mowing (regime C) differed significantly from those of plots with regime D but did not differ from regularly mown plots (regime A). Management cessation led to a change in life-form distribution. Dominance of certain lifeforms depended on site moisture but the most obvious change was the increase of vegetation height.
Shrub development on road outside verges can provide alternative wildlife habitat. However, management of inside verges should keep vegetation at a height consistent with proper road visibility and safety. The influence of management on vegetation was analyzed on the inside verge of two Portuguese roads, one mown once and another twice a year. Specifically, the effect of mowing frequency on shrub abundance and the combined effect of management and shrubs on floristic diversity were addressed. One stretch of each road was surveyed for shrub abundance and for herbaceous species diversity and cover. The effect of mowing frequency on shrub growing and biomass production and allocation was also evaluated along two years. Results indicate that vegetation mowing yearly in spring is enough to keep the inside verge free from most shrubs. However, summer growing shrubs like Dittrichia viscosa can persist, decreasing both floristic diversity and cover, particularly of meadow species. Moreover, in response to spring mowing, shrubs grew fast and were able to disperse efficiently. An additional autumn mowing significantly decreased not only shrub height and canopy area, but specially seed production and dispersal. Thus, the inside verge management should be based on two mowing periods. The first in spring to control winter and spring growing species, and an additional autumn mowing to control growth and dispersal of summer growing shrubs and trees, or even tall grasses. This management regime will combine safety with improvement of the amenity and habitat value of the road verges.
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