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In this study sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) profiles were analysed and differences were confirmed by a unweighted pair group method with arithmetic average (UPGMA) analysis between bifidobacterial species, such as B. infanis ATCC1567, B. bifidum Bb-12, B. longum KN29, B. catenulatum KD14, and B. animalis BI30. Two dimensional electrophoresis separation profiles were compared, and the most characteristic spots were characterized by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). We propose proteins extracted from intact cells as an additional trait for bifidobacteria characterization, together with molecular techniques, which can be used to analyze bacterial protein polymorphism and to distinguish among species.
The potential role of currency in the spread of pathogenic microflora has been evaluated in many countries. In this study Polish paper notes and the coins in general circulation were assayed for the presence of cultivable bacteria and fungi. Bacterial isolates identification was based on cultural and biochemical characters and by comparison of the 16S rRNA gene sequence. Fungal isolates were recognized with biochemical and morphological criteria. Coagulase-negative staphylococci, (43.6% of the total bacterial count) including Staphylococcus saprophyticus, S. epidermidis, and S. hominis, and Enteroccus spp. (30.8% of the total bacterial count), i.e. E. faecalis, E. faecium and E. durans, were the most numerous bacterial contamination. Penicillium spp., and Aspergillus spp. were the most frequently detected moulds whereas Candida spp. was the most frequent yeast isolated from currency. A visible dependence between the banknote denomination, the physical condition of paper currency, and the number of bacteria and fungi was found. The overall count of bacteria isolated from currency was thousand-fold higher than that of fungal isolates. The total amount of bacteria and fungi recovered from the coins was approximately 2.7-fold lower than that isolated from the notes. In summary, the Polish currency notes were found to be contaminated mainly with commensal bacteria and fungi while the opportunistic pathogenic microorganisms Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas stutzeri and C. albicans were detected at a low frequency.
Virulence determinants are clustered in many bacterial pathogens in pathogenicity islands (PAI) scattered along the chromosome. Many such islands have been described to date and new similar genomic structures will certainly be detected in the near future. Genomic structures similar to pathogenicity islands have also been identified in non-pathogenic bacteria. The products of their genes participate in symbiosis, xenobiotic degradation, determine antibiotic resistance and supply many other metabolic functions for bacteria. Pathogenicity islands may be defined by the following criteria: G+C content, codon usage patterns, dinucleotide frequency different from that of the core genome, the presence of IS elements, transposase and integrase genes that determine mobility islands, the presence of direct repetitions at their boundaries, integration into tRNA genes and/or IS elements. Such DNA regions from non-pathogenic organisms are called genomic islands. It seems that pathogenicity islands are members of genomic islands. The integration of islands into chromosome occurs with HGT through transduction, transfection, and conjugation, but phages are recognized as being the main force of gene transfer. Pathogenicity islands as well as other islands remain in bacterial genome since they provide selective advantages to their recipient within given, specific conditions thus enhancing their survival within an ecological niche and adaptation capacity to eukaryotic hosts.
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