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We investigated the effects of sexual reproduction on vegetative propagation and relative somatic cost in Arum maculatum L. (Araceae). Two groups were selected as control and experimental. The spadices of individuals in experimental group were removed to test the relationship between sexual reproduction and vegetative propagation. Statistically significant differences were found between initial and final tuber weight in individuals with sexual organs removed. No significant differences were found between initial and final tuber weight in naturally reproducing (sexual organs not removed) individuals. However, the statistically significant differences were found between control and experimental group with respect to above-ground biomass but not in terms of below-ground biomass. The differences between two groups in terms of above-ground and below-ground nitrogen concentrations were also significant. Relative somatic cost of sexual reproduction (RSC) was observed in above-ground parts, but not in below-ground parts in terms of biomass and in both above- and below-ground parts in terms of nitrogen concentration.
Results of experiments with isolates A1 and A2 from populations occurring in Poland in the years 1993-1998 were compared. Mating types A1 and A2 did not significantly differ with respect of virulence spectrum, pathogenicity level and virulence diversity (Shannon index). After pairing isolates A1 and A2 formed oospores; their morphological characteristics were described. On selected fields a test was performed whether the oospores could play a role as a source of primary infection. Local populations occurring on three fields were characterized. Results obtained on investigated 3 separate fields, located in 2 voivodeships of southern Poland were compared. It was stated on the basis of the proportion of both mating type isolates, race complexity and diversity, that oospores could play a role as a source of primary infection, at least in one of localities in Boguchwała, podkarpackie voivodeship.
In vivo and in vitro self-pollination of whole pistils of some clones of Salix viminalis enabled to obtain mature seeds containing cotyledonary embryos which after the transfer to MS medium developed into wholly formed seedlings. Pollination in vitro of placentae led to abundant pollen germination and formation of tubes which occasionally they were entering the ovules through micropyle. Fertilized ovules normally developed into germinable seeds. Distant pollination of stigmas in vivo and in vitro with pollen grains of Populus tremula, P.tomentosa, P. lasiocarpa showed the ability of pollen to germinate and to form tubes several hours after pollination. Some tubes penetrated the styles but did not enter into the placenta. When placentae were directly pollinated than pollen germinated abundantly and occasionally pollen tubes were found entering the micropyle. Embryological analysis of those ovules performed 3-5 days after pollination demonstrated the presence of globular embryos with several endosperm nuclei. The technique of in vitro placental pollination works well for Salix viminalis and it could probably be applied to other Salix species.
The interaction between seed plants and animals during pollination and fruit and seed dispersal is well known, and marks the sexual reproduction process. During the history of the plant kingdom, the development of sexual reproduction has been governed by changes in the environment of the plant, together with the increasing complexity of organisms. The interactions between gametes and the environment are prepared during gametogenesis, and therefore reproduction and dispersal are related from the beginning. The dynamic environment should be considered as an interactive partner. The more intensive interactions in multicellular organisms make the interaction in seed plants far more complex. Sexual reproduction plays a key role in the progress of the interaction between the dynamic environment and the biosphere. Sexual reproduction embodies the renewal and dispersal of organisms. This means that the interactions between organisms and their environment are not only an essential element of sexual reproduction but also a characteristic of life, based on the unity of organism and environment. The driving force of the increasing complexity of life is the dynamic environment and the persisting organism.
Sexual reproduction in angiosperms is an interactive process involving the sporophyte, gametophytes, embryo and endosperm as well as the environment, aimed at achieving pollination, fertilization and dispersal. This interaction occurs via an interface with nutrients and signals outside the cell and even outside the plant. Sexual reproduction has a history. In water, algae have different types of sex organs and gametes, and in some cases the female gamete stays on the plant. The zygote uses water movement and gravity for dispersal. Some algae have alternation of generations in the life cycle, and only the gametophyte functions in sexual reproduction. On land, ferns and mosses inherited alternation of generations, with oogamy and zygote development on the gametophyte, with wind dispersal of the meiospore. In angiosperms, heterospory and the retention of the megaspore, megagametophyte and embryo on the sporophyte lead to a seed with gravity and biotic dispersal. The history of sexual reproduction is based on sex determination, due to cross-fertilization and recombination. Sex differentiation is manifested in the increasing complexity of interaction in the nutrient supply, the retention of the gametophyte or even the embryo, and the type of vector of dispersal. Regulation of sexual reproduction in angiosperms is governed mainly by the sporophyte, with the expression of new genes for biotic pollination and seed dispersal. In the heterotrophic gametophyte some gene expression is suppressed. The development of sexual reproduction is due to the communication between the organism and a dynamic environment.
Pollen grains of Pinus wallichiana, P. mugo, P. ponderosa and Ephedra distachya germinated at various intensities on in vitro cultured placentas of 32 angiosperm species. Pollen of the same gymnosperms did not form tubes on stigmas of pistils cultured under the same conditions as the placentas. Pollen of several angiosperms germinated on semi in vitro cultured opened ovules of Larix decidua and nucelli of Taxus baccata. Angiosperm pollen did not germinate in vivo in the pollination drop secreted by ovules of T. baccata. This report shows that (1) gymnosperm pollen produces fully formed tubes on ovules of angiosperms but do not germinate on their stigma, and (2) pollen representing angiosperms is able to germinate and form tubes on ovules of gymnosperms.
In this work, a seed-set-based screening was performed on 70 lines of Arabidopsis thaliana after activation tagging mutagenesis to identify mutations in reproductive mechanisms. Five mutants showed significantly lower seed set than the wild type and confirmed the phenotype in the progeny. This phenotype was linked with the marker gene bar carried by T-DNA conferring glufosinate resistance. Genetic analysis revealed that the mutation inheritance was sporophytic in 3 mutants and gametophytic in 2 mutants. In addition, 2 mutants had an extra T-DNA copy. Thus activation tagging can be an effective strategy to identify new mutations affecting sporogenesis or gametogenesis.
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