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Evapotranspiration values (ET) are crucial for agriculture where estimates of water reserves available for crops are the basis for scheduling the time and intensity of irrigation, yield prognoses, etc. Detailed evapotranspiration data are, therefore, of essential value. However, stations performing direct measurements of evapotranspiration are very scarcely distributed in Poland, and for this reason the interpolation of data is necessarily biased. Hence, evapotranspiration values are calculated using indirect methods (usually empirical formulas). Data from geostationary meteorological satellites are used operationally for the determination of evapotranspiration with good spatial and temporal resolution (e.g. Land-SA F product). The study of the relation between evapotranspiration values determined with the use of satellite data and those calculated using the Penman-Monteith formula was performed for the study area in Poland. Daily values and cumulated (i.e. decadal, monthly and yearly) values were analysed to determine the quality and possible added value of the satellite product. The relation between the reference ET and actual ET in two consecutive years was discussed, both for the whole test area and for individual stations, taking into account land use and possible water deficit in the root zone, represented by H-SA F (EUMETSA T Satellite Application facility supporting Operational Hydrology and Water Management) soil wetness index product. The differences are presented and discussed.
A statistical analysis of Baltic Sea upwelling has been carried out to cover, for the first time, the entire sea area for the period 1990–2009. Weekly composite SST maps based on NOAA/AVHRR satellite data were used to evaluate the location and frequency of upwelling. The results obtained were analysed and compared with earlier studies with excellent agreement. Our study enables the most intense upwelling areas in the entire Baltic Sea to be evaluated. According to the analysis of 443 SST maps, the most common upwelling regions are found off the Swedish south and east coasts (frequency 10–25%), the Swedish coast of the Bothnian Bay (16%), the southern tip of Gotland (up to 15%), and the Finnish coast of the Gulf of Finland (up to 15%). Pronounced upwelling also occurs off the Estonian coast and the Baltic east coast (up to 15%), the Polish coast and the west coast of Rugen (10–15%); otherwise the upwelling frequency was between 5 and 10%. Additionally, simulated SST distributions derived from a Baltic Sea numerical model were analysed for the same period. Furthermore, at specific positions close to the coastline, surface winds based on the SMHI meteorological data base were analysed for the same 20-year period. Wind components parallel to the coast were discriminated into favourable and unfavourable winds forcing upwelling. The obtained frequencies of upwelling-favourable winds fit very well the observed upwelling frequencies derived from satellite SST maps. A positive trend of upwelling frequencies along the Swedish east coast and the Finnish coast of the Gulf of Finland was calculated for the period 1990–2009.
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