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The following species of sedentary birds with widespread and common occurrence are the most convenient as bioindicators: Magpie Pica pica, Feral Pigeon Columba livia f. domestica, House Sparrow Passer domesticus or Tree Sparrow Passer montanus, Blackbird Turdus merula, Goshawk Accipiter gentilis (feathers) and nestlings of various species. The non-destructive method of feather analysis is suitable mainly for assessment of Pb, Cd, As, Sb, Ge, Tl, and Hg. It cannot be applied for Mn, Ni, Sr, Rb, Mo and Fe that are cumulated in feathers at similar levels in polluted and unpolluted areas. Hg, Zn, Cu, Cr, As and Se have stronger affinity to keratin than others. The method requires strict standardisation, particularly in the way samples are to be collected and prepared for mineralisation. None of feather cleaning procedures removes all contaminants from vane surfaces. With respect to many elements, analysing "concentration in feathers" is a measurement of external deposition therefore metal levels found in feathers correspond more strongly to the data on immission than to the element pool available in food. Mercury is an exception here. In cases of toxic elements as Pb, Cd or Tl it is possible to predict their concentrations in internal tissues on the basis of feather analysis.
Acta Ornithologica
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1999
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tom 34
|
nr 2
131-134
The usefulness of transmission and scanning electron microscopy for clarifying the finer details of feather morphology is exemplified. (1) The structure making a wing feather airtight is a ventral, membraneous extension of a barbule closing the gap between adjacent barbules. (2) The exposed part of the body plumage is a very open structure. This fact and the shape of barbules in transverse section suggest that water repellency is an important function of body plumage. (3) Two ways of producing colours resembling those of green vegetation by utilizing yellow carotenoids, blackish melanins, air and keratin are contrasted: a simple one in olive green feathers and a complex one in green feathers of Ptilinopus doves.
The feather-bearing skin of birds differs fundamentally from the fur-bearing skin of mammals. Especially within the feather tracts, it contains much structural fat tissue in the dermis and the subcutaneous Fascia superficialis. These are separated from each other by an elastic membrane and are, together with the feather muscles, part of the hydraulic skeleto-muscular apparatus of the feathers. While feathers are raised by erector feather muscles and are returned to their resting position by the resilience of the surrounding fat tissue and an elastic membrane, the depressor feather muscles counteract external forces, such as air turbulences, thereby ensuring a smooth surface of the coat of feathers and reducing drag during flight. The coat of feathers itself creates fusiform body contours, which also reduce drag. Furthermore, subcutaneous fat bodies are strategically placed to ensure an even draping of the skin over the body and, thereby, contribute to streamlined body contours. The subcutaneous fat bodies and the dermal depressor muscles are part of the unique characteristics of the avian integument and have evolved under the selective regime for streamlining of body contours and surface as a precondition for the evolution of avian flight.
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