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The skimming hypothesis of the origin of insect flight is considered in several possible scenarios. No scenario is found to be in agreement with available information about the insect fossil record and the environments of early insect evolution.
The surface-skimming hypothesis for the evolution of insect flight poses that insects first used wings and aerodynamic locomotion to move in two dimensions across water surfaces. Here I present an overview of recent advances in our understanding of surface-skimming locomotion, and how these findings relate to phylogenetic origins of insects and developmental and anatomic origins of insect wings. Behavioral surveys show taxonomically widespread use of skimming by Plecoptera and more taxonomically restricted use of skimming by Ephemeroptera. Because these two orders arose near the root of the early split of pterygote insects into the Paleoptera and Neoptera, traits that appear in both groups are strong candidates for traits possessed by the first winged insects. Comparisons across plecopteran species show that skimming speed increases as contact with the water surface decreases, thereby providing a mechanical pathway over which directional selection may have acted to improve aerodynamic capability in early skimmers. Evolution along this route may have occurred within species in response to factors such as scramble competition and sexual selection. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that the common ancestor of modern Plecoptera was capable of both skimming and flying; such dual ability is widespread among extant stoneflies, including the most basal families. Both the mechanics and the semi-aquatic setting of skimming fit well with the growing understanding that insects and crustaceans are sister clades and that insect wings evolved from gills.
Some structural characters and morphometric variables – size, body shape and proportions, wing shape and structure – that appear in insects to be linked with flight performance, are discussed and evaluated, and methods are described for deriving these from fossil material. Some wing design categories associated with particular flight techniques and capabilities are identified. Their use in reconstructing the flight performance of extinct insects is illustrated with reference to Carboniferous palaeodictyopteroids and Mesozoic palaeontinoid Hemiptera.
This paper is a second part of publication concerning the flowering and pollen value of some species of the Umbelliferae family. They were: Aegopodium podagraria L., Angelica silvestris L., Anthriscus silvestris L. (Hoffm), Chaerophyllum aromaticum L., Eryngium planum L., Heracleum sibiricum L., Pastinaca saliva L. The aim of a present paper was to estimate a pollen efficiency and insect visit of examined species. The mean pollen mass produced by 100 flowers differed among species and their successive rows. The highest mean mass of pollen was obtained from 100 flowers of Heracleum sibiricum, the lowest from Chaerophyllum aromaticum, respectively. Mean pollen efficiency per one plant was highest for Pastinaca saliva (215.3-333.2 mg), the lowest for Aegopodium podagraria (55.7-80.9 mg). The best pollen producers per one plant and 1 m2 were: Pastinaca saliva, Heracleum sibiricum and Angelica silvestris. Differentiation of pollen grains measurements was found between successive rows of the examined species. The lowest dispersion of pollen grains measurements was recorded for Chaerophyllum aromaticum and Anthriscus silvestris, while the highest for Heracleum sibiricum. Under good weather conditions all examined species were visited by various insects, they collected both nectar and pollen. The most intensive visitation was noticed on 1 m2 of Eryngium planum, the lowest on Anthriscus silvestris and Chaerophyllum aromaticum.
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