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The subjects were 13 horses, of which 5 clinically healthy ones were infected intranasally and intraconjunctivally with a suspension of two subtypes of the influenza virus: A/equi/1 and A/equi/2, and 3 were control animals. The remaining 5 horses became ill in a natural way. In the early phase of injection, the haematological determinations showed in the experimental horses a decrease in the lcucocyte, lymphocyte, neutrophil, and platelet counts. The changes in the values of erythrocyte indices (red blood cell count, haemoglobin content, and packed cell volume) were more weakly marked, though a tendency to decrease their value occurred. Similar results were obtained in the animals naturally infected with equine influenza virus although their cxamination was started only from the 6th day of illness.
The aim of this study was to analyze data collected by the SENTINEL influenza surveillance system in Poland in the first post-pandemic season 2010/2011. The results include weeks 35/2010–17/2011. Physicians registered weekly number of influenza-like illnesses and collected specimens. Laboratory tests were done using PCR and/or real-time PCR or immunofluorescence. Laboratories also isolated the influenza virus. Influenza-like illness incidence amounted to 2802.7/100000. Weekly incidence ranged from 11.3/100000 to 232/100000. The most affected group was children 0–4 years. Influenza-like illness peak occurred between weeks 02/2011 and 11/2011. Influenza infections were confirmed in 34.9% of specimens. More cases were caused by influenza A, including A(H1N1)pdm09 than influenza B (59.9% vs. 40.1%). The isolated strains were similar to A/California/7/2009 or B/Brisbane/60/2008. Season 2010/2011 in Poland did not differ from the rest of Europe. Further improvement is necessary, especially in the area of specimen collection at the beginning of an epidemic season and carrying out the isolation of the influenza virus.
Neuraminidase (NA) is an enzyme coded for by the genome of influenza critical for its pathogenicity and survival. Three currently accepted roles for this NA in promoting influenza virulence are: 1. NA cleaves newly formed virus particles from the host cell membrane. Without NA, newly formed virus would remain attached to the cell within which it was produced. 2. NA prevents newly released virus particles from aggregating to each other, preventing clumping that would reduce dissemination. 3. NA promotes viral penetration of sialic acid-rich mucin that bathes and protects respiratory epithelium through which the virus must spread and replicate. We outline here previous research evidence of two further, albeit hypothetical, functions of NA that together could cause disruption the mucosa-IgA axis, creating localized partial immunosuppressed state, enhancing both influenza infection itself and secondary bacterial pneumonia: 4. IgA provides primary immunoglobulin defense of mucosal surfaces. The hinge region of IgA is normally sialylated. IgA denuded of sialic acid is recognized, bound, and cleared by hepatic asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGPR). Thus, IgA exposed to free NA would be so denuded and have increased hepatic clearance. 5. NA removes sialic acid moieties from mucosa-residing gamma/delta T cells or IgA producing B cells. Previous work indicates desialylation of these lymphocytes' outer cell membrane results in altered homing, to bone marrow, away from mucosa. Currently marketed NA inhibitors oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and zanamivir (Relenza) are FDA approved in USA for influenza prophylaxis and treatment. These NA inhibitors lower incidence of secondary bacterial infection in cases where an influenza infection occurs despite their use. Moreover, they are ameliorative in patients with secondary bacterial infections treated with antibiotics, a benefit that surpasses the treatment of antibiotics alone. We interpret these last two points as indicating our ascription of localized immunosuppression to influenza's NA could be correct and lead to new treatments of infections generally.
Receptor-active gangliosides with affinity for Helicobacter pylori and influenza virus were chemically modified and analyzed by negative ion fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry (FAB MS) or electron ionization mass spectrometry (EI MS) after permethylation. Derivatizations included mild periodate oxidation of the sialic acid glycerol tail or conversion of the carboxyl group to primary alcohol or amides. The modified gangliosides were then tested for binding affinity using thin-layer plates overlaid with labeled microbes or microbe-derived proteins. Mild periodate oxidation, which shortens sialic acid tail without destruction of sugar cores, abolished or drastically reduced binding of H. pylori and avian influenza virus to sialyl-3-paragloboside (S-3-PG). The same effect was observed in the case of binding of the human influenza virus to receptor-active gangliosides of human leukocytes. Conversion of S-3-PG or leukocyte gangliosides to primary alcohols or amides also abolished the binding. However, mild periodate oxidation had no effect on binding of NAP (neutrophil-activating protein of H. pylori) to the active ganglioside.
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