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Recent studies on the structure and function of the tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (Mr 38 000) of the frog liver arc reviewed. The nature of the enzyme heterogeneity is elucidated on a molecular and physiologi­cal basis. The following structure-activity relationship is proposed: the enzyme protein is modified by glycosylation processes leading to forma­tion of the different enzyme forms. The oligosaccharide chain stabilizes the final structure of the enzyme forms with altered conformation causing different exposure of the essential functional groups (e.g. sulfliydryl residues, antigen determinants). This leads to different physiological events necessary for fulfillment of metabolic requirements of the cell.
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Melanophores inside frogs

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Melanocytes/melanophores were known for some decades as pigment cells in skin. The origin of these cells in embryogenesis from neural crest cells is actively investigated now. Some melanocytes/melanophores were described inside adult vertebrates. Historically, these internal melanocytes have been largely ignored, until recently. In frogs, the melanophores populate not only the skin, but all the inner connective tissues: epineurium, peritoneum, mesentery, outer vascular layer and skin underside. In adult avian, melanocytes were also found in visceral connective tissues, periostea, muscles, ovaries and the peritoneum. In mammals and humans, melanocytes are also revealed in eyes, ears, heart and brain. A black-brownish pigment, which can be found in brains of humans and some mammals, was called neuromelanin. Currently, attempts are being made to treat neurodegenerative diseases and various nerve injuries with medications containing melanin. In this micro-review, we wanted to remind again about the inner melanophores on visceral organs and lining blood vessels and nerves, their importance in organisms resistance to adverse environmental factors.
Frog liver acid phosphatase hydrolyzes phosphotyrosine at acidic pH optimum. Mn2+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ (but not Zn2+) ions modulate this activity by shifting its pH optimum to physiological pH. This effect is not observed when p-nitrophenylphos-phate is used as a substrate. Phosphoserine and phosphothreonine are not hydrolyzed under the same conditions.
Helmeted frogs with co−ossified skulls (Thaumastosaurus) were previously known in Europe only in the Eocene on the basis of Thaumastosaurus bottii from southwestern France and Thaumastosaurus wardi from coastal southern England. We describe Thaumastosaurus sulcatus, that differs from these species in having a different dermal sculpture pattern and tooth morphology. We suggest that the auburn colored tooth crown tips in T. sulcatus, as in some other vertebrates, reflect extra hardness for protection against tooth wear. Autochthonous Thaumastosaurus species in southern England support the concept that southern England and southwestern France were distinct faunal provinces in the Late Eocene.
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