The effect of contrasting meteorological conditions on hydrology, hydrochemistry and input–output budgets of nutrients and metals was examined in a small (2.8 ha) forested watershed of the Masurian Lakeland (NE Poland). The conditions of a frosty and dry continental winter activated an outflow of underground water originating from deeper water resources. The chemical composition of this outflow differed from watershed waters outflowing during mild winters with respect to SO4-S, Ca and Mg, which had lower concentrations, and NH4-N and K, which exhibited higher concentrations. An exceptionally severe winter affected also element fluxes in the examined watershed during the subsequent growing season. In order to show this impact, a comparison was made between the balances of elements moving through the investigated forest ecosystem during the growing seasons following mild and extremely cold winters. A biogeochemical effect of a frosty winter drought in a small post-glacial forested watershed, observed during vegetation growth (April – October), involved increased mineralization of nitrogen and phosphorus: a higher level of DON and DOP retention and a lower level of SRP and NO3-N retention. The increase in mineralization and the “opening” of biogeochemical cycles were also reflected in the loss of metals as K, Na, Ca and Mg.
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Various animals must cope with some specific extreme environmental conditions and, as a consequence, they developed extremely efficacious adaptive defence responses. The mechanisms of the specific defences are more clearly visible in some species than in humans. Therefore, animal models of the human defence mechanisms should be selected accordingly. The appropriate, well responding models may be regarded as "biological amplifiers". This review is focussed on examples of effective defence against: (i) parturitional asphyxia, which extends fertility of mammals; (ii) diving asphyxia, which extends access of food in aquatic birds and mammals; (iii) endotoxemia, which provides survival of the fittest in mammals showing top fertility; (iv) deep hypothermia, which enables hibernating mammals to arouse. Each of the defences needs close co-operation of the cardiovascular, respiratory and temperature regulatory systems. Underlined problems regarding a choice of appropriate experimental animal models should stimulate renaissance of comparative physiology.