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Externalities occur when the decisions of production and consumption made by one market participant are directly affected by the decisions and actions of others, whilst this impact is not fully reflected in market prices. In case of livestock production, the examples are: agricultural landscape, biodiversity, carbon dioxide and methane emission, unpleasant odour and animal welfare, all called environmental externalities. The aim of the paper is to estimate the potential costs and benefits of possible changes in requirements associated with public goods and externalities generated by agriculture on the example of upgraded animal welfare standards in milk production. It was found, that implementing higher animal welfare standards may lead to a labourious increase in milk production. It may result in a farming scale decrease, an increase in labour costs (and production costs) and consequently lead to the deterioration of financial conditions. Revenues per cow increased in the analysed scenario in the case of the small and medium scale farms and remained stable in the case of the large scale farm. However, farm income decreased in the case of all farms. This is mainly due to employment, depreciation and an increase in financial costs.
The article is focused on a cultural heritage. It points out the meaning of cultural heritage for the individuals and for the society. It reports a new perspective on cultural heritage as cultural capital, its perception as a bearer of cultural and economic values. The overview of economic valuation techniques used for estimating cultural heritage is also presented in this article.
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Valuating ecosystem services

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This paper summarises current knowledge of goods and services in the Polish Exclusive Economic Zone of the Baltic Sea ecosystem. It reviews specific properties of the Baltic that could be used for economic valuation. Goods and services range from the familiar resources of fish and minerals, which were valued with the Productivity Method, to less obvious services provided by the ecosystem such as biofiltration in coastal sands, valued with either the Replacement Cost or Damage Cost Avoided methods. Disservices to the marine ecosystem are also considered, e.g. erosion and coastal flooding, including the costs of planned mitigating measures. This paper emphasises the importance of using valuation methods to help make better-educated decisions for the sustainability of the Baltic Sea.
The Programme of Plant Genetic Resources Protection alongside the main task of preserving biodiversity plays also other roles. As a part of this programme, the collection holding over 130 hemp cultivars and genotypes is evaluated and being enlarged at the INF. Hemp was a prohibited crop in many European countries until recently due to the problem of drug abuse. Many valuable breeding materials and local populations were destroyed. Therefore, it is very important to preserve the cultivars and ecotypes of hemp for genetic and breeding research. The INF collection is thoroughly studied and the analyses of different parameters of accessions are conducted under both, greenhouse and field conditions as well as in the laboratory. Currently, the traditional use of hemp in Europe is marginal. The hemp raw material is mainly used in non-garment textile area, such as pulp and paper, automotive and construction materials industries. The Programme of Genetic Resources Protection ensures necessary and consequent evaluation of collected genotypes according to different parameters and direction of use. Therefore, the protection of genetic resources is a main element of breeding strategy for cultivated plants.
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