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The shapes of red blood cells with fluid interior depend on the properties of their membranes. The red blood cell membrane is composed of a bilayer, containing integral proteins, and the underlying membrane skeleton, which are attached to each other through different specific and nonspecific linkages. A short account is given of theories of shape formation based on the description of the membrane as a single- or multi-layered elastic continuum. Existing experimental evidence is then outlined which indicates that some relevant shape determining factors reside in the specific properties of different red blood cell integral and skeletal proteins. In this context a theoretical approach is introduced, based on the chemical equilibria established by the interacting skeletal and integral proteins. A simple prototype model is analyzed, taking into consideration that the binding between integral membrane proteins and the skeleton depends on membrane curvature. The essential parameters of the model are the gross value of the corresponding interaction energy and the coefficient measuring the dependence of this energy on membrane curvature. The effects of these parameters on RBC shapes and on the lateral mobility of integral membrane proteins are demonstrated.
A possible physical interpretation of a discontinuous transition between different red blood cell shapes is given. The red blood cell membrane is considered to consist of the bilayer part and the underlaying membrane skeleton. By taking into consideration that the stable cell shape corresponds to the minimum of the membrane energy, that consists of the bilayer and skeleton elastic energies and of the bilayer-skeleton interaction energy, it is shown that aggregation of the skeleton can cause the discontinuous cell shape transformation from a shape with the bilayer completely underlaid with the skeleton to the shape involving a spherical parent cell with completely underlaid bilayer and spherical daughter vesicles without the skeleton.
A view is presented on different roles which the bilayer part of the membrane and the skeleton play in establishing normal and some abnormal RBC shapes. The system is first studied at the level of elastic properties of red blood cell membrane where the latter is considered to be a trilayered structure. Then the contributions to the membrane energy are introduced which cause the membrane to become laterally inhomogeneous, in particular, the skeleton-bilayer interaction, the interaction between the membrane embedded molecules and the membrane curvature, and the distributional free energy of membrane embedded molecules. It is invoked that the role of skeleton in stabilizing red blood cell membrane is in keeping membrane integral proteins laterally distributed as homogeneously as possible.
Fruits and vegetables are built mainly of thin walled parenchyma cells highly susceptible to mechanical damage. According to experimental investigation of relationship between cells geometrical parameters and mechanical properties of tissue a new efficient method of structure reconstruction and parametrisation is elaborated and presented in this paper. Special sample preparation and way of image taking by Confocal Scanning Laser Microscope with fluorescence mode allows obtaining images of any number of cells. Unique computer procedure based on morphological operators was created that allows analysing automatically any number of images with extracting geometrical parameters of each cell separately. The method was tested on potato and carrot tissue. Results show that the method is fast and gives proper cell reconstruction for both materials. In order to decrease error of incorrect reconstruction, possibility of manual correction was introduced to the procedure.
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