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Goldenrod (Solidago canadensis L.) is an invasive plant species in many countries except North America but a cut-flower species worldwide. There is a need to generate and propagate goldenrod clones efficiently for research and commercial purposes. A callus induction and plantlet regeneration system was developed by studying the influence of explant type and different concentrations of plant growth regulators. The highest callus production from leaf segments was obtained on Murashige and Skoog's medium (MS medium) supplemented with 1.0 mg/L naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and 1.0 mg/L 6-benzylaminopurine (BA). Adventitious shoots could be regenerated directly from leaf explants without an intermediate callus phase with the highest shoot induction percentage of 87.2%. The largest number of adventitious shoots per leaf explant (3.2) was obtained on MS medium supplemented with 0.4 mg/L NAA and 2.0 mg/L BA. MS medium supplemented with 0.1 mg/L NAA and 1.0 mg/L BA was the best medium for axillary shoot regeneration from nodal segments. The highest root number and longest roots occurred on half-strength MS without the addition of any growth regulator. Rooted plantlets were then transferred to a soil-based growth medium, placed in a greenhouse, and acclimatized with 100% success. All surviving plants grew normally without showing any morphological variation when compared to those grow from seed. This regeneration protocol may be used to produce certain biotypes of goldenrod suitable for genetic transformation, rapid propagation of goldenrod for commercial purposes or for screening fungi and toxins as potential biocontrol agents against this weed.
The impact of biological invasions should be considered from ecological and economic perspective. To understand the influence of the invader, both its range and abundance should be known. Even if the range of invaders is well-known, the problem of assessing their abundance still occurs very often. In this study we report the results of an assessment of the area covered by stands of alien Solidago species in Silesia (Central Europe, south-western Poland, area ca. 30 000 km²), and estimated costs of the invaded areas recultivation. The results of field survey show that the stands of invasive Solidago species cover an area of about 130 000 hectares in S-W Poland, which is ca. 4.5% of the total area of the studied region. It was also found that the cadastral data and Corine land cover maps underestimate the area of fallowed agricultural lands. The cost of removing stands of invasive Solidago species in S-W Poland ranges from 123.24 to 266.17 million PLN, depending on the method. The method that balances reasonable costs, low environmental impact and efficiency of grassland establishment costs 180.7 million PLN for S-W Poland.
Growth, yielding, leiocaroposide content in goldenrod (Solidago virgaurea L. ssp. virgaurea) herb depending on different NPK fertilisation level were analysed and compared in the study. Every year, before the beginning of plants vegetation the following compounds were applied, respectively: nitrogen fertilisation - in form of ammonium nitrate 34% N (N1 - 0.046 g N per pot, N2 - 0.093 g N per pot, N3 - 0.139 g N per pot), phosphorous in a form of single superfosphate 7.9% P (PI - 0.213 g P per pot, P2 - 0.428 g P per pot, P3 - 0.854 g P per pot) and potassium - in a form of potassium salt 48.1% K (Kl - 0.169 g K2 per pot, K2 - 0.337 g K per pot, l<3 - 0.675 g K per pot) according to experiment design in three levels and different combinations (16) of elements mentioned above. Mineral fertilization is the factor which significantly affected appearance and all golden- rod features under study. Fertilization with use of all macroelements (N, P, K) (especially in double or triple doses) led to the highest level of yields of raw material. Phosphorous played an important role in goldenrod plant proper growth as well as active substances accumulation while nitrogen application took place in aboveground parts of yield.
Yields of herbs of both compared species were significantly higher in the second year (St. John's-wort by 47%, and goldenrod by 20%). The share of the most valuable parts (leaves and flowers) in the raw material was similar in the first and second year (St. John's-wort: 68% and 69%, goldenrod: 73% and 68%, respectively). As far as the contents of biologically active compounds are concerned, the raw material obtained in the second year was more valuable: hypericine in St John's-wort increased by 0.2% and leiocarposide in goldenrod by 0.15% (flavonoids were at the same level).
In four-year-lasting field experiment yielding and chemical composition of goldenrod (Solidago virgaurea L. ssp. virgaurea) herb depending on different methods of plantation establishment and natural growth regulator Atonik application were analysed. In the experiment different methods of goldenrod plantation establishment were compared: A. direct spring diaspores sowing, B. spring planting of seedlings, C. direct autumn diaspores sowing, D. autumn planting of seedlings as well as spraying with 0.1% solution of Atonik twice a year. Diaspores were sown directly onto the field in rows 40 cm apart, whereas seedlings were produced in multicell trays in plastic tunnel throughout 5 weeks and then transplanted onto the field in 40 cm × 15 cm raw spacing. Raw material was harvested every year at the beginning of blooming stage and after that chemical analyses comprised leiocarposide content (by HPLC method) were done. The highest yields of raw material were obtained in the second and third years of cultivation, while in the fourth year a considerable yields decrease was observed, indicating that goldenrod plantation should last two or three years. Higher raw material yields characterized by higher leiocarposide content were collected from the plots with spring seedlings transplanting or autumn diasporas sowing, thus these methods of plantation establishment should be recommended on commercial plantations of goldenrod. Additionally, plants should be sprayed with 0.1% Atonik in order to increase raw material yields.
In a field experiment, the growth and yielding of goldenrod (Solidago virgaurea L. ssp. virgaurea) and leiocaroposide content in herb depending on different NPK fertilization level and soil type were analysed. Mineral fertilization level was the factor that significantly affected yielding and parameters of goldenrod growth. Along with NPK level increase a tendency to increase number of stems, their height and inflorescences length as well as a significant increase of goldenrod raw material yields and at the same time decrease of leiocarposide content was observed. Increasing mineral fertilization doses were especially effective on poor in nutrients slightly loamy sand. Significantly higher raw material yields, but characterized by lower leiocarposide content were collected on rich in nutrients heavy loamy sand.
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