Maintenance of healthy teat skin and teat-ends is a key part of any effective mastitis program. Instruments and measurement techniques used to assess the condition of teat tissue include changes in teat thickness with a modified cutimeter, ultrasonography, sub-cutaneous oxygen tension and pulse oximetry. Simpler methods for quantifying the condition of the teat after milking are optical estimates that rely on changes in the short- or medium- or long-term. Faults in milking machines are the primary cause of short-term changes in color, firmness, thickness or swelling of teats, or the degree of openness of the teat orifice. Medium-term changes in the incidence of petechial haemorrhages or larger haemorrhaging may occur instantly or may take several days before becoming evident. Changes in the teat skin condition are associated with harsh weather or chemical irritation. Long-term changes in teat-end condition after milking are, among other things, hyperkeratosis, where there is stratified dryness and hardness of keratin around the orifice of the teat canal. The application of a scoring system and the further development of digital cameras and related software for scoring is a more objective and convenient way. The TECT (teat end callosity thickness) and TECR (teat end callosity roughness) are complementary parameters, and should both be used. Development of TEC (teat end callosity) is associated with cow factors such as TES (teat end shape), PAR (parity), DIM (lactation stage), and MT (machine-on time). With the aid of research ultrasound repercussions it is possible to observe inflammatory states and mechanical damages of teats in the form of stenosis or atresia external orifice teat canal. The endoscopic technique is suitable for multiple sampling and repeated visualization of the teat and udder cistern of healthy, lactating cows without major complications. The collected biopsy samples could be used in primary epithelial cell culture, histological examination, and PCR analysis. In robot-milked cows significantly lower frequencies of the occurrence of the trait of redness of the teat skin but a significantly higher frequency of the trait dry teat skin were observed than in traditionally milked cows. Cows milked traditionally also showed a higher frequency of extended teat canals in the front teats than rear teats. Milk leakage from teats occurs more often in robotic milking than in cows conventionally milked and housed in a free-stall barn or a tie-stall barn.
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