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Multiple paternity has been described in a wide range of taxonomic groups (eg invertebrates, fish, reptiles, birds, mammals). In rodents, multiple paternity seems to be common and can lead to both genetic (eg increase in offspring diversity, avoiding inbreeding) and direct (eg higher survival rate of the litter) benefits. The primary aim of this study was to confirm multiple paternity and evaluate its frequency in a wild population of yellow-necked mouseApodemus flavicollis (Melchior, 1834). Animals were trapped in north-eastern Poland in 2004–2006. Five microsatellite loci previously described for members of the genusApodemus were used to examine the occurrence of multiple paternity among the offspring of 10 pregnant females. The analyses were performed using multiplex PCR, estimating the length of amplified fragments with an automated sequencer. The presence of additional alleles indicating multiple paternity was found in 30% (3 out of 10) of the investigated litters. Offspring fathered by a single male were predominant in each litter, with the proportion of individuals originating from other males varying from 16.7 to 20% in the three multiple paternity cases. Our findings indicate that the promiscuous mating system may be considered as an alternative breeding strategy in the yellow-necked mouse.
Promiscuity and monogamy are two extremes of fitness optimisation. Direct evidence for both extremes is documented in numerous studies where a measure of promiscuity/monogamy is often the number of fathers in individual litters using, for example, fragment analysis of highly polymorphic microsatellite loci. In this study, five known polymorphic microsatellite loci were used to assess biological parentage of 174 embryos of 24 pregnant females from a natural Czech population of pygmy field-miceApodemus microps Kratochvíl et Rosický, 1952. The results revealed that the majority (67%) of litters were fathered by single males. However, there was a trend showing that the number of males successively (but not significantly) increased during the season, thus suggesting that monogamy in the pygmy field mouse is not obligatory but may depend on a population density and habitat type.
Published records of twinning and superfoetation in monotocous wild mammals are rare. Flying-foxes (Pteropodidae, Megachiroptera) occasionally produce twin offspring, fraternal twins, as well as superfoetation twins. Superfoetation occurs where a foetus is conceived when there is a foetus already developing. The resultant twins may be months apart in developmental stages so that one twin is usually born prematurely. Here, we review the current literature available on twinning and superfoetation in flying-foxes, and describe nine occurrences of multiple conceptions in Australian Pteropus species. Differences in sex and age of offspring clearly showed that most resulted from simultaneous or serial ovulations, not zygote splitting, thus excluding monozygous twinning. Additionally, an example of superfoetation is genetically analysed using six highly polymorphic microsatellite loci, to show multiple-paternity of superfoetation twins. Multiple births by flying-foxes are rare, leading the authors to conclude that the polyovulation constraint theory, found in the Microchiroptera, is not applicable in flying-foxes. The rare occurrence of additional ovulations do not usually produce additional live offspring. Post-ovulatory constraints, including the extra energetic demand twins place on a female flying-fox, are implicated in preventing successful production of multiple offspring.
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