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One of the key evolutionary events on the scale of the biosphere was an endosymbiosis between a heterotrophic eukaryote and a cyanobacterium, resulting in a primary plastid. Such an organelle is characteristic of three eukaryotic lineages, glaucophytes, red algae and green plants. The three groups are usually united under the common name Archaeplastida or Plantae in modern taxonomic classifications, which indicates they are considered monophyletic. The methods generally used to verify this monophyly are phylogenetic analyses. In this article we review up-to-date results of such analyses and discussed their inconsistencies. Although phylogenies of plastid genes suggest a single primary endosymbiosis, which is assumed to mean a common origin of the Archaeplastida, different phylogenetic trees based on nuclear markers show monophyly, paraphyly, polyphyly or unresolved topologies of Archaeplastida hosts. The difficulties in reconstructing host cell relationships could result from stochastic and systematic biases in data sets, including different substitution rates and patterns, gene paralogy and horizontal/endosymbiotic gene transfer into eukaryotic lineages, which attract Archaeplastida in phylogenetic trees. Based on results to date, it is neither possible to confirm nor refute alternative evolutionary scenarios to a single primary endosymbiosis. Nevertheless, if trees supporting monophyly are considered, relationships inferred among Archaeplastida lineages can be discussed. Phylogenetic analyses based on nuclear genes clearly show the earlier divergence of glaucophytes from red algae and green plants. Plastid genes suggest a more complicated history, but at least some studies are congruent with this concept. Additional research involving more representatives of glaucophytes and many understudied lineages of Eukaryota can improve inferring phylogenetic relationships related to the Archaeplastida. In addition, alternative approaches not directly dependent on phylogenetic methods should be developed.
The rhizarian amoeba Paulinella chromatophora harbors two photosynthetic cyanobacterial endosymbionts (chromatophores), acquired independently of primary plastids of glaucophytes, red algae and green plants. These endosymbionts have lost many essential genes, and transferred substantial number of genes to the host nuclear genome via endosymbiotic gene transfer (EGT), including those involved in photosynthesis. This indicates that, similar to primary plastids, Paulinella endosymbionts must have evolved a transport system to import their EGT-derived proteins. This system involves vesicular trafficking to the outer chromatophore membrane and presumably a simplified Tic-like complex at the inner chromatophore membrane. Since both sequenced Paulinella strains have been shown to undergo differential plastid gene losses, they do not have to possess the same set of Toc and Tic homologs. We searched the genome of Paulinella FK01 strain for potential Toc and Tic homologs, and compared the results with the data obtained for Paulinella CCAC 0185 strain, and 72 cyanobacteria, eight Archaeplastida as well as some other bacteria. Our studies revealed that chromatophore genomes from both Paulinella strains encode the same set of translocons that could potentially create a simplified but fully-functional Tic-like complex at the inner chromatophore membranes. The common maintenance of the same set of translocon proteins in two Paulinella strains suggests a similar import mechanism and/or supports the proposed model of protein import. Moreover, we have discovered a new putative Tic component, Tic62, a redox sensor protein not identified in previous comparative studies of Paulinella translocons.
Trochulus striolatus is a land snail showing great morphometric variation in its shell, which is the basis for recognition of its subspecies. However, this variability can result from an influence of environment. To verify the possible effect of bioclimatic and spatial variables on the shell size and shape, we studied many samples collected from four biotic zones (lowland, submontane, montane and subalpine). Many of its shell features appeared significantly negatively correlated with a precipitation parameter and altitude, whereas positively correlated with temperature parameters. The shells were smaller at higher altitudes and in colder environment with greater precipitation. The reduced growth period can be an adaptive response to the shorter growing season in mountainous regions compared to lowland areas, where the longer season permits a longer growth resulting in larger mean adult body size. This conforms to the converse Bergmann's cline. The synergetic interactions between seasonality, temperature and moisture best explain the size variation in T. striolatus resulting from the influence of local environmental and/or climate factors. Therefore, there is no sufficient justification for subspecies recognition and the subspecific epithets for T. striolatus should be discarded.
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Is there any mystery of ORPHANs?

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We have analysed the coding capacity of ORFs longer than 100 codons found in the yeast genome. Comparing the parameters describing the DNA asymmetry in the set of known genes and the set of all ORFs>100 codons we have found that there are about 4700 coding ORFs in the yeast genome. Since for more than 2300 ORFs recognisable functions have been already found and for about 2000 ORFs homology to known genes has been identified - only about 400 ORFs can be considered as orphans - ORFs without any known function or homology. This finding means that there is no mystery of orphans - a paradox showing that the fraction of orphans has been growing with the growing number of genes with known functions in the yeast genome.
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