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Heavy metal toxicity is one of the major abiotic stresses leading to hazardous health effects in animals and plants. Because of their high reactivity they can directly influence growth, senescence and energy synthesis processes. In this review a new indirect mechanism of heavy metal action is proposed. This mechanism is connected with the generation of reactive oxygen species (especially H₂O₂) and jasmonate and ethylene signaling pathways and shows that toxicity symptoms observed in plants may result from direct heavy metal influence as well as the activity of some signaling molecules induced by the stress action.
The concentration of non-enzymatic antioxidants such as ascorbate and glutathione in tissues is one of the major plant responses to biotic and many abiotic stresses, including metals. Therefore, it is crucial to develop the most effective methods for simultaneous quantitative analysis of these antioxidants. Capillary zone electrophoresis allows relatively fast and effective analysis. The aim of the paper was to apply and optimise the capillary electrophoresis conditions for simultaneous determination of glutathione, glutathione disulphide, ascorbate, and dehydroascorbate in small plant tissue samples exposed to copper and cadmium. The method ensures good linearity and reproducibility, with correlation coefficients 0.988 for ascorbate and 0.999 for glutathione and glutathione disulphide, and with detection limits approximately 2.50, 0.65 and 0.50 ppm, respectively. Cu stress was found to increase the ascorbate concentration and glutathione content in leaves, while Cd increased glutathione in the oldest leaf segments and root.
The effect of Ca on Cu toxicity in runner bean plants (Phaseolus coccineus L. cv. Piěkny Jaś) grown hydroponically in nutrient solution was studied. The toxic effect of excess Cu on plants depends on their age and Ca content in the medium. Copper applied in excess to the plants at the early phase of leaf development strongly limits the uptake of Ca ions from the nutrient solution, particularly their translocation to leaves. Increased Ca content limits the inhibitory effect of Cu on leaf growth and decreases the content of chloroplast pigments to the level approximate to that of control. At this growth stage the effect of excess Cu is at least partially connected with limited Ca transport to leaves. At the intermediate leaf phase Cu-treated plants react slightly to changed Ca content. At the end of the primary leaf development increased Ca concentration in the medium intensifies senescence processes induced by excess Cu. The changes are partially connected with intensified water deficit. Increased Ca content in the nutrient solution limits Cu accumulation in the individual organs of Cu-treated plants. However, Cu accumulation in leaves is not decreased at a high level of Ca. Copper generally decreases Ca content in the youngest plants, whereas in the oldest ones only in the case of a low level of Ca in the nutrient solution.
This study examined the effects of cytokinins and methyl jasmonate (JAMe) alone and in combination on the growth and flavonol content of zucchini cotyledons cultured in the presence or absence of Cu2+. During greening of cotyledons in intensive diurnal illumination, rutin was identified as the main flavonol compound. Its accumulation was greatly stimulated by phenylurea cytokinin (4PU-30) but reduced by Cu2+. Stimulation by benzylaminopurine (BA) was less. JAMe showed an inhibitory effect, alone and with simultaneous addition of Cu2+ or cytokinins. In moderate excess (100 μM and 250 μM CuSO4), Cu2+ enhanced stimulation by 4PU-30 of rutin accumulation; at a higher concentration or with other substances it decreased the rutin level. The other flavonol detected, kaempferol-3-rhamnoside, increased after JAMe or 4PU-30 were added; in the other cases it decreased. The data obtained indicate that cytokinins can increase rutin content in developing Cucurbita cotyledons. Rutin content usually decreased under stress induced by excess Cu2+, but Cu2+ in moderate excess had a stimulating effect in the presence of higher phenylurea cytokinin levels
Maize seedlings grown in a nutrient solution were treated with Cd (50, 100 μM) or Cu (50, 100 μM). Roots and separated leaf sections (from the youngest–– basal, through the middle––mature, to the oldest––apical) were analysed. Shoot and root fresh weight, and root net growth rates were reduced significantly after Cu application in comparison to Cd. Copper (50, 100 μM) and cadmium (100 μM) decreased the sum of chlorophyll and total carotenoid pools mostly in mature and old leaf sections. The concentration of Cu and Cd increased in the old and mature leaf sections. Analysis of organic acids showed that both metals differently influenced the lowmolecular-weight organic acids (LMWOAs) content in maize leaf sections. In mature sections, the excess Cu increased the succinate and tartrate contents, whereas in the young ones mainly the tartrate level was elevated. Cadmium elevated citrate accumulation in mature and old sections, compared to the control plants. Malate, the main LMWOA in maize leaves, increased only after addition of 100 μM of Cd (mature and old sections) or 50 μM of Cu (old sections). Analysis of LMWOAs in roots showed that the excess of Cd or Cu induced higher accumulation of tartrate and malate and, additionally, copper increased the citrate content.
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