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The experiment was performed on 30 cows, including 10 animals infected with the BVD-MD virus. The following parameters were determined: prothrombin time, thrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time, fibrinogen and D-dimer concentrations, antithrombin III activity, and blood platelet counts. The obtained results indicated that the BVD-MD virus lowered blood platelet counts and led to dysfunctions in plasma coagulation and fibrinolytic systems. The observed changes in the examined haemostatic indicators suggest that BVD-MD infections could lead to the development of disseminated intravascular coagulopathy that has adverse consequences for the animals' health.
Twenty-two elements have been identified as essential to the growth and health of animals. They include 7 macroelements and 15 microelements, which play four key functions in the body: structural, physiological, catalytic and regulatory. Mineral deficiencies can result from low quality feed, impaired absorption or assimilation in the body or increased demand for minerals during intensive growth, pregnancy and lactation. Mineral-deficient feed and diets with an unbalanced mineral content impair the growth and development of young animals, decrease appetite, lower nutrient absorption, decrease immunity and increase susceptibility to contagious diseases. This paper discusses the consequences of low levels of macronutrients and micronutrients that are required for the optimal growth of calves, lambs and kids, including calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, selenium, cobalt, iron, zinc, copper, sodium, potassium and chloride.
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Effects of selenium on animal health

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Selenium is an essential trace element in the diet of humans and domesticated animals. It is a component of more than 30 selenoproteins, which play a significant role in the body. Selenoproteins protect cells from damage inflicted by free radicals, the cause of many chronic diseases. They also participate in the metabolism of thyroid hormones, control reproductive functions and exert neuroprotective effects. In addition to its anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory properties, selenium stimulates the immune system. The role of selenium is aided by vitamin E and sulfur-containing amino acids. Selenium deficiency contributes to pathological changes in farm animals, which incur large financial losses each year. Low selenium levels can lead to the development of nutritional muscular dystrophy, also known as white muscle disease, in lambs, kids, foals, calves and poultry from birth to 3 months of age. Selenium deficiency may also cause exudative diathesis in poultry as well as dietary necrotic liver degeneration and mulberry heart disease in pigs. Parturition problems resulting from reduced tension of the muscular layer of the uterus, postparturient paraplegia, placental retention and purulent inflammations of the uterine lining are also attributed to low selenium levels. Selenium deficiency contributes to the formation of ovarian cysts and increased embryonic mortality in the first 3-4 weeks after insemination. Selenium and vitamin E facilitate neutrophil migration to the mammary gland, and they enhance the bactericidal effects of neutrophils, thus shortening and alleviating the symptoms of clinical mastitis. Selenium poisoning is rarely encountered, and it most often results from an overdose of selenium supplements. The most common forms of selenosis are chronic selenosis, referred to as alkali disease, and acute selenosis, popularly known as blind staggers.
Selenium is an essential nutrient, which is crucial for proper body function. Its role is complemented by vitamin E. Nutritional muscular dystrophy (NMD) is one of the main disorders caused by a selenium deficiency. NMD most often affects calves at the age of 4 to 6 weeks. The study was performed on 40 Holstein-Friesian (HF) calves divided into two groups of 20 animals each. Control group calves were administered an IM injection of selenium and vitamin E on the second day of life. The experimental group comprised calves with symptoms of NMD. Samples of the biceps femoris muscle were collected from six animals in each group for histopathological analyses to confirm changes in muscle parameters. Blood samples were obtained from all animals on three different dates. The following blood parameters were determined in laboratory analyses: pH, pCO 2 , pO 2 , HCO 3 – , BE, O 2 SAT, the concentrations of Na + , K + , Cl – , and Ca and P levels. A drop in pH, an increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, a decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen, a significant decrease in bicarbonate ion concentrations and hemoglobin oxygen saturation as well as a base deficit were reported in the group of calves demonstrating symptoms of NMD. The above changes point to the development of uncompensated metabolic acidosis due to increased levels of pyruvic acid and lactic acid produced as a result of anaerobic processes that accompany muscle fiber degeneration. Minor fluctuations in sodium and chloride levels were observed throughout the experiment, but their concentrations remained within the norm in animal groups. Potassium levels were significantly higher in the experimental group than in the control group. The serum concentrations of inorganic phosphorus and calcium were within the reference range in both groups. In calves, NMD leads to disruptions in the acid-base equilibrium and the electrolyte balance, which are manifested by uncompensated metabolic acidosis and hyperkalemia. Significant changes in calcium and phosphorus levels are not observed in the blood serum of calves affected by NMD.
The purpose of this study was to determine changes in coagulation profile parameters in cattle with left abomasal displacement (LAD). The study was performed on 20 Holstein-Friesian (H-F) cows divided into two groups: group I - 10 cows with diagnosed left abomasal displacement and group II - 10 clinically healthy cows. Coagulation tests, including TT (thrombin time), PT (prothrombin time) and APTT (activated partial thromboplastin time), were conducted, and fibrinogen content, D-dimer content, AT III (antithrombin III) activity and platelet (PLT) count were determined in all the animals. Prolonged TT, PT and APTT, a higher fibrinogen and D-dimer content, a drop in AT III activity and thrombocyte count were observed in the cattle with LAD. The above abnormal coagulation profiles were most predominant in three cows which died after surgical repositioning of the abomasum. The results of the study indicate that in cattle with abomasal displacement, the disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) syndrome was the most significant risk factor for mortality.
Bone marrow examinations were performed in a group of 10 Holstein-Friesian (HF) cows aged 2 years, which had been diagnosed with BVD/MD infection in a PCR screening test. Prior to bone marrow sampling, peripheral blood samples were collected for hematological analysis. Bone marrow was sampled from the third and fourth ribs in the sternal region, and it was placed in test tubes containing no anticoagulant. Smears were stained by the MGG method. The aim of this study was to demonstrate changes in the process of hematopoiesis in animals with clinical signs of BVD/MD. The results of the analysis revealed changes in erythrocyte, macrocyte-macrophage, lymphoid and granulocytic cell lines. There was a decrease in the number of red blood cells in the peripheral blood and polychromatic and ortochromatic erythroblasts in the bone marrow. A decrease in leukocyte counts below reference values resulted mainly from a decrease in the number of neutrophilic metamyelocytes, eosinophilic myelocytes and banded eosinophils. Moreover, a decrease in the number of megakaryocytes was observed in the megakariocytic system. BVDV infection causes changes in the activity of the hematopoietic system.
Zearalenone (ZEN) widely contaminates animal feed of plant origin. The recommended safe concentrations of ZEN in feeds for various animal species are set mainly based on the mycotoxin’s hormonal properties (NOEL). Our growing knowledge about biologically active concentrations of ZEN, molecular mechanisms and cells/tissues targeted by ZEN indicates that the harmful effects exerted by this mycotoxin on animals may be far greater than previously believed. This experiment was performed on pre-pubertal gilts divided into a control group (n=9) and an experimental group (ZEN, n=9). The control group received placebo, whereas the experimental group was administered ZEN at a dose of 0.1 mg/kg feed (equivalent to 5 μg/kg BW/day) for 42 days. On days 14, 28 and 42 blood samples were collected from the animals to determine the concentrations of selected zearalenols, serum biochemical and haematological parameters. Conjugated ZEN was found in the blood serum of the experimental gilts. Changes in the analysed biochemical parameters included a transient increase in albumin and cholesterol levels. A statistically significant increase in the concentrations of neutrophilic and acidophilic granulocytes was observed in the white blood cell system. The results indicate that long-term per os exposure of pre-pubertal gilts to low doses of ZEN (below NOEL) has a modulatory effect on liver function and white blood cells.
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