Phenological events such as conception or parturition dates may have profound impact on several key life-history traits of ungulates at the individual as well as the population level. However, relatively little is known about the causes of variation in the timing of reproduction. Based on a 17-year survey of reproductive tracts, we investigated the effect of climate, population density, and age on the conception date of female moose (Alces alces) harvested in Estonia. Ninety-five percent of studied moose cows were conceived within a period of 9 weeks (29 August–30 October), while more than 45 % of all moose cows were conceived from 19 September to 2 October. Conception date was negatively related to population density and nonlinearly to the regional measure of winter climate reflecting the maximal extent of ice on the Baltic Sea (MIE) in the previous winter. High air temperatures during rut (in September) delayed the conception date. The timing of conception also depended on female age. Yearlings conceived significantly later as compared to females of all other age groups. Our findings corroborate the importance of density-dependent as well density-independent processes on the timing of conception of this ungulate. We also propose that the effect of population density on conception date may be mediated by increasing ecological carrying capacity concurrent with increasing population abundance.
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