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Investigations were carried out into the effect of sonication of bee honeys on the course of their crystallization during storage. Use was made of ultrasounds with a frequency of 40 kHz and intensity of ca. 2 W/cm2. Analyses were carried out for physicochemical characteristics of honeys, including: viscosity, texture, conductance and crystallization degree. After 30-min sonication, an increase in viscosity by ca. 30 mPa.s and a reduction in conductance by 0.6 mS/cm were observed in the solution examined. Analyses of the texture (hardness) of honey subjected to the sonication process demonstrated an initial increase of hardness and then its stabilization and even a slight decrease, as compared to the control samples. The degree of crystallization was proportional to the exposure time to ultrasound treatment. The biggest crystals were observed in the non-sonicated samples. Sonication modified the crystallization process of the examined sugar solutions to a significant extent. Observations of the solutions after the sonication demonstrated the formation of a high number of crystals in the whole volume of the sample, whereas the non-sonicated solutions were observed to crystallize unevenly forming large crystals. It was shown that the ultrasound treatment modified the course of recrystallization and, as a result, texture of the recrystallized honeys by decreasing their hardness.
Seeds of Hibiscus esculentum were analyzed for growth, in terms of fresh and dry weights, cell size, water content, reducing and non-reducing sugars and acid invertase activity. On the basis of growth analysis seed development is divided into four distinct phases of a) cell division, d) cell elongation, c) dry matter accumulation and, d) maturation. A close parallel with water content and cell size was observed. A peak level of reducing sugars was observed during the rapid elongation growth. The role of invertase in hydrolyzing sugars and its regulation of sink development is discussed.
The work contains a comparison of the changes at the sugar market in Hungary and in Poland in the years 1995-2014. Sugar beet crop area in Hungary has decreased by 87% and in Poland by 48%, while beet root harvest dropped by 25% in Hungary, but remained unchanged in Poland. Sugar beet production was abandoned – either by choice or necessity – by 62% of farmers in Hungary (in the years 2000-2014) and by 87% in Poland (1995-2014). In the 20 year period sugar beet production shrunk in Hungary by 73% and in Poland it grew by 29%. Between 1995 and 2008 11 out of 12 sugar factories in Hungary were closed, while in Poland out of 76 factories, 19 remained operational through that period and 18 remained a year after. Sugar exports in 2013 grew compared to 1995 by 15 times in Hungary, but by 253 times in Poland. Sugar imports in Hungary grew 105 times, in Poland it dropped by 40%. Lifting of sugar production quotas in the EU in 2017 can result in complete abandoning of sugar production in Hungary and its further growth in Poland. Hungary has nevertheless been strengthening their position as the leading producer of isoglucose in the EU.
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Natural sweeteners in a human diet

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Sweeteners, both natural and artificial, play an important role in a human diet as well as are of great importance to the food industry and dieticians. Many people associate sweet taste with sucrose, which is commonly known as table sugar. However, there are many sweet substances that food manufacturers add to food products because none of them is ideal for all applications. Besides sucrose there are also other sugars such as glucose and fructose that originate both from natural sources such as fruits and honey or from added sugars. Among sweeteners there are also compounds which have a sweet taste and contain no calories or those which sweetness is so intense so can be used at very low concentrations, thus, their impact on the total caloric value of the product is negligible. They can be classified due to their origin (natural or synthetic agents), the technological function (sweeteners and fillers), texture (powders and syrups), and nutritional value (caloric and non-caloric). Natural sweetening substances include carbohydrates, sugar alcohols, thaumatin and stevia. Besides providing well tasting foods, they might have an impact on products’ texture, color, preservation and caloric value. Sugar alcohols, which belong to carbohydrates, are both natural sugar substitutes and food additives. They are becoming more and more popular among consumers mainly due to their lower caloric values and glycemic indexes as well as anticariogenic effects. Sugar alcohols are often combined with other sweeteners to enhance food products’ sweetness. Stevia, which is 200 times sweeter than sucrose, is a non caloric substance whereas thaumatin, a sweet protein, provides 4 kcal/g but characterizes with sweetness about 2000 times higher than sucrose (on a weight basis).
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