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Phosphorylation regulation of postsynaptic density proteins is likely to be a major means of regulating synaptic function. The PSD scaffold PSD-95, a powerful determinant of synaptic strength, is a case in point. Its precise role during synaptic plasticity (LTP versus LTD) has not been easy to interpret from overexpression, RNAi or knockout mice experiments. We found that the PSD scaffold PSD-95 is phosphorylated on multiple sites in cultured neurons and in vivo. Ser-295 phosphorylation, mediated by a Rac1-JNK1 MAP kinase pathway and countered by phosphatases PP1 or PP2A, promotes PSD-95 accumulation in synapses and is associated with LTP-inducing stimuli. More strikingly, LTD-inducing stimuli causes dephosphorylation of ser-295 rapidly and profoundly, correlating with activation of PP1. In addition, LTD was associated with phosphorylation of an N-terminal residue of PSD-95 by the protein kinase GSK3b. This site is also bidirectionally modulated by activity. A phospho-mimicking mutant of PSD-95 (S295DPSD-95; which cannot be “dephosphorylated”) impaired the internalization of AMPA receptors in cultured neurons and blocked the induction of LTD in cultured hippocampal slices. Our data indicate that dephosphorylation of PSD-95 on ser295, and phosphorylation of the N-terminus of PSD-95, is required for mobilization of PSD-95 from the PSD, de-anchoring of AMPA receptors from the PSD for internalization, and hence induction of LTD.
Endocytic processes are mediated by multiple protein-protein interacting modules and regulated by phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. The Eps15 homology domain containing protein 1 (EHD1) has been implicated in regulating recycling of proteins, internalized both in clathrin-dependent and clathrin-independent endocytic pathways, from the recycling compartment to the plasma membrane. EHD1 was found in a complex with clathrin, adaptor protein complex-2 (AP-2) and insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF-1R), and was shown to interact with Rabenosyn-5, SNAP29, EHBP1 (EH domain binding protein 1) and syndapin I and II. In this study, we show that EHD1, like the other human EHDs, undergoes serine-phosphorylation. Our results also indicate that EHD1 is a serum-inducible serine-phosphoprotein and that PKC (protein kinase C) is one of its kinases. In addition, we show that inhibitors of clathrin-mediated endocytosis decrease EHD1 phosphorylation, while inhibitors of caveolinmediated endocytosis do not affect EHD1 phosphorylation. The results of experiments in which inhibitors of endocytosis were employed strongly suggest that EHD1 phosphorylation occurs between early endosomes and the endocytic recycling compartment.
Maf1 was the first protein discovered to regulate polymerase III RNA in yeast and because it is evolutionarily conserved, a Maf1 ortholog also serves to restrain transcription in mouse and human cells. Understanding the mechanism of the regulation has been made possible by recent studies showing that Maf1 is a nuclear/cytoplasmic protein whose subcellular distribution and hence negative regulation of Pol III transcription is mediated by the nutrient-sensing signaling pathways, TOR and RAS. Under stress conditions and during growth in a nonfermentable carbon source Maf1 is dephosphorylated and imported to the nucleus. In its non-phosphorylated form, Maf1 interacts with the polymerase III transcription machinery. Phosphorylation serves to locate Maf1 to the cytoplasm under favorable growth conditions, thereby preventing it from non-negatively regulating polymerase III when high levels of tRNA transcription are required. Relocation of Maf1 to the cytoplasm is dependent on Msn5, a carrier responsible for export of several other phosphoproteins out of the nucleus. The absence of Maf1-mediated control of tRNA synthesis impairs yeast viability in nonfermentable carbon sources. Moreover, in cells grown in a nonfer mentable carbon source, Maf1 regulates the levels of different tRNAs to various extents. This differential regulation may contribute to the physiological role of Maf1.
Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) comprises a diverse family of phosphoserine- and phosphothreonine-specific phosphatases present in all eukaryotic cells. All forms of PP2A contain a catalytic subunit (PP2Ac) which forms a stable complex with thestructural subunit PR65/A. The heterodimer PP2Ac-PR65/A associates with regulatory proteins, termed variable subunits, in order to form trimeric holoenzymes attributed with distinct substrate specificity and targeted to different subcellular compartments. PP2Ac activity can be modulated by reversible phosphorylation on Tyr307 and methylation on C-terminal Leu309. Studies on PP2A have shown that this enzyme may be implicated in the regulation of metabolism, transcription, RNA splicing, translation, differentiation, cell cycle, oncogenic transformation and signal transduction.
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