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Oxygen breathing and ventilation

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We investigated the ventilatory response to normobaric poikilocapnic hyperoxia in healthy subjects. The study was carried out in 26 subjects of the mean age 26 ±0.9 (SE) years, who breathed pure oxygen through a two-way valVE for 10 min. The subjects were in the sitting position with a mouthpiece and nose clip attached. Ventilatory flow was recorded using a pneumotachograph and minute ventilation was calculated from the tidal and frequency components. The SaO2 and alveolar CO2 tension were continuously monitored. Ten of the same subjects constituted a control group in which room air was substituted for oxygen and the tests repeated in the same way at another occasion. We found that oxygen breathing caused a transient 8.4% decline in ventilation, whose nadir was 1 min after the introduction of oxygen. Thereafter, ventilation increased significantly aboVE the baseline value and showed a further rising tendency toward the end of the test. We conclude that acute oxygen treatment is unlikely to haVE a major inhibitory effect on the carotid body-dependent ventilatory driVE in normal subjects. The determinants of the hyperoxic ventilatory stimulation remain to be established in further studies.
The performed investigations aimed at assessing the welfare of horses in accordance with the rules and methods of zoohygienic inventory. The investigations were performed and the measurements taken at the Wolica riding complex of Warsaw University of Life Sciences. The basic parameters creating the microclimate were evaluated in the research described in the paper "The welfare of horses assessed by the investigations of chosen parameters of the stable microclimate" published in the present issue of Animal Science. Using the rules and methods of zoohygienic inventory the current paper presents the farm buildings, their equipment, ventilation system and closest surroundings in which the horses are kept. The investigations included the concentration of ammonia in the stables, to demonstrate the effectiveness of drains and ventilation. The obtained results were compared with the binding standards. The obtained results show that the parameters agree with zoohygienic recommendations and exceed the standards only sporadically. The welfare of animals was maintained.
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Ventilatory augmentation by acute intermittent hypoxia in the rabbit

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This study seeks to determine the effects on respiratory function of acute intermittent hypoxia. The experiments were performed on anesthetized, spontaneously breathing rabbits. The experimental protocol consisted of 5 one-minute episodes of hypoxia (14% O2 in N2) interspersed with three-minute normoxic recovery periods. Ventilatory variables, minute ventilation (MV) and its tidal and frequency components, were derived from the continuously recorded airflow signal. We found that MV progressively increased with each next hypoxic-normoxic cycle; the increases were driven by both ventilatory components. Ventilatory augmentation concerned both the stimulus (hypoxic) and recovery (normoxic) periods, but it was significantly greater in the former. The augmented ventilation was sustained for up to 30 min after the last hypoxic run, which suggests the appearance of ventilatory long-term facilitation. The results demonstrate that acute intermittent hypoxia consisting of a few hypoxic-normoxic cycles is capable of inducing appreciable ventilatory changes. Such changes reflect plasticity of the respiratory motor output developing on a short-term basis during ongoing cycles of hypoxia, which, in the present study, correlated with the number of hypoxic cycle. Ventilatory augmentation in response to acute cyclic hypoxic episodes may give insights into the mechanisms of respiratory improvement by intermittent hypoxic training, increasingly used in both sports physiology and medicinal approaches.
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Hypoventilation in chronic mountain sickness: a mechanism to preserve energy

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Chronic Mountain Sickness (CMS) patients have repeatedly been found to hypoventilate. Low saturation in CMS is attributed to hypoventilation. Although this observation seems logical, a further understanding of the exact mechanism of hypoxia is mandatory. An exercise study using the Bruce Protocol in CMS (n = 13) compared to normals N (n = 17), measuring ventilation (VE), pulse (P), and saturation by pulse oximetry (SaO2) was performed. Ventilation at rest while standing, prior to exercise in a treadmill was indeed lower in CMS (8.37 l/min compared with 9.54 l/min in N). However, during exercise, stage one through four, ventilation and cardiac frequency both remained higher than in N. In spite of this, SaO2 gradually decreased. Although CMS subjects increased ventilation and heart rate more than N, saturation was not sustained, suggesting respiratory insufficiency. The degree of veno-arterial shunting of blood is obviously higher in the CMS patients both at rest and during exercise as judged from the SaO2 values. The higher shunt fraction is due probably to a larger degree of trapped air in the lungs with uneven ventilation of the CMS patients. One can infer that hypoventilation at rest is an energy saving mechanism of the pneumo-dynamic and hemo-dynamic pumps. Increased ventilation would achieve an unnecessary high SaO2 at rest (low metabolism). This is particularly true during sleep.
The ventilation of the Baltic Sea deep water is driven by either gale-forced barotropic or baroclinic salt water inflows. During the past two decades, the frequency of large barotropic inflows (mainly in winter) has decreased and the frequency of medium-intensity baroclinic inflows (observed in summer) has increased. As a result of entrainment of ambient oxygen-rich water, summer inflows are also important for the deep water ventilation. Recent process studies of salt water plumes suggest that the entrainment rates are generally smaller than those predicted by earlier entrainment models. In addition to the entrance area, the Słupsk Sill and the Słupsk Furrow are important locations for the transformation of water masses. Passing the Słupsk Furrow, both gravity-driven dense bottom flows and sub-surface cyclonic eddies, which are eroded laterally by thermohaline intrusions, ventilate the deep water of the eastern Gotland Basin. A recent study of the energy transfer from barotropic to baroclinic wave motion using a twodimensional shallow water model suggests that about 30% of the energy needed below the halocline for deep water mixing is explained by the breaking of internal waves. In the deep water decade-long stagnation periods with decreasing oxygen and increasing hydrogen sulphide concentrations might be caused by anomalously large freshwater inflows and anomalously high mean zonal wind speeds. In different studies the typical response time scale of average salinity was estimated to be between approximately 20 and 30 years. The review summarizes recent research results and ends with a list of open questions and recommendations.
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The influence of acute progressive hypoxia on bioelectrical activity of the brain

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Hypoxia, a noxious and hyperventilatory stimulus and a modifier of neuronal metabolism, could influence cortical function. In this study we attempted to assess any such influence, its determinants, and particularly the role in it of the accompanying hypoxic emotional distress. We addressed the issue by examining the associations among EEG, ventilation, and anxiety during progressive poikilocapnic hypoxia (end-point SaO2 75%) in 12 awake healthy volunteers (mean age 27.5 ±0.7 yr). All subjects hyperventilated in response to hypoxia and 3 of them had a high level of anticipatory anxiety that forced one person to discontinue the test. We failed to show any major effect of hypoxia on the EEG pattern analyzed by visual inspection or wavelet power spectra. Therefore, no relationship between the ventilatory and cortical activity responses to hypoxia could be established. Cortical activity changes appeared, however, in the subjects who experienced emotional distress during the test. These changes were apparent on an expanded analysis of the EEG signal by the use of the Lempel-Ziv complexity that takes into account the ordering of variations in the signal, rather than only the relative frequency of events analyzed by the Shannon entropy. The Lempel-Ziv complexity offers promise as a novel method for unraveling fine and otherwise unexpressed alterations in cortical bioelectrical activity.
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