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The aim of this paper was to review 100 years of Polish studies on sulphur fertilisation and its effects on the growth and development of plants, the chemical composition and impact of sulphur compounds on the health of plants, and its fungicidal activity. In the reviewed studies sulphur deficiency generally delayed vegetative growth, caused the dying out of the growth cone, yellow discolouration of the generative and vegetative organs and delayed maturation. Observations of plants have demonstrated that sulphur is essential for normal photosynthetic functions. Plants suffering from a lack or shortage of sulphur had pale green or yellowish, narrow, short and small leaves, and a smaller than normal root system, which was associated with reduced chlorophyll synthesis. The availability of sulphur was found to enatil an improved uptake of nitrogen by plants, thus affecting their quality and optimising the N:S ratio. Fertilisation with sulphur increased the total content of sulphur and sulphates in plants. Findings from studies on the effect of sulphur on the content of macroelements in tested plants are inconclusive. Sulphur used in excess disturbed the ionic balance in plants and indirectly affected the intensity and level of uptake of other nutrients. The results of studies investigating the impact of sulphur on changes in the content of heavy metals were ambiguous and demonstrated either synergistic or antagonistic interactions. Generally, sulphur fertilisation increased the content of glucosinolates in plants and improved their nutritional value. Most studies also showed that sulphur fertilisation improved the disease resistance of plants. Some studies have also demonstrated an increased content of glucosinolates in plants fertilised with sulphur, which stimulated natural resistance to fungal infections.
The Niepołomice Forest, a large forest complex typical of Central European lowlands, is located near an urban-industrial agglomeration in southern Poland. During the past 20 years, SO₂ emissions from industry decreased from 75,000 t yr⁻¹ to 6000 t yr⁻¹. Concentration of SO₂ in the air, and pH, SO₄⁻² concentration in bulk precipitation were measured during the last 11 years and compared with data from the 1970s. The spatial distribution of concentrations and deposition of S were calculated on the basis of 30 bulk precipitation samples in 1999-2000. Mean annual concentration of SO₂ in the air was 8.25 μg m⁻³ in 2000, that is 2.5 times lower than during the period 1967-1978. At the beginning of the 1990s the concentration of SO₂ exceeded the critical level for plants during 3% of the days over the year, and at the end of the 1990s only on single days. In 1999 and 2000 the yearly mean concentration of S-SO₄⁻² in bulk precipitation in the Niepołomice Forest was 1.11 mg l⁻¹, ranging between 0.99 and 1.27 mg l⁻¹ in the forest complex. The yearly mean sulphur deposition (S-SO₄⁻²) was 8.1 kg ha⁻¹, varying from 7.3 to 8.9 kg ha⁻¹. The present concentrations and deposition of S-SO₄ were a quarter those of 1974-1978. The spatial distribution of S deposition pointed to the influx of S compounds to the Niepołomice Forest with air masses from the west. The yearly mean pH of atmospheric precipitation was 4.64 (1999-2000), and was steady within the forest complex. In the Niepołomice Forest, atmospheric precipitation was more acid recently than in the 1970s.
During the years 1984-1990, red beet, carrot and parsley were cultivated in four selected allotment gardens situated near the Płock Petrochemical Works (central Poland). Leaves and roots were harvested, dried and analysed for nine heavy metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) and two forms of sulphur (total and sulphate). The accumulation of the heavy metals (except copper) was much higher in vegetable leaves than in the roots. This was especially true for manganese, iron, lead and chromium. Only two metals, cobalt and copper, were gathered in normal concentrations in all samples. Iron, chromium and cadmium were accumulated in above-normal amounts in all analysed vegetable organs. Overall, the contents of iron, chromium, zinc and nickel found in the examined vegetables were harmful for them. Total sulphur and sulphate sulphur showed highest levels in carrot leaves. In this organ both forms of sulphur occurred in amounts which were harmful to the plants. In general, the quality of examined vegetables, considering the accumulation of heavy metals and sulphur, was low because of very high levels of iron and chromium.
Strict, three-year-long field experiment was performed on degraded Phaeozems, IIIb soil valuation class, with pH ranging from 6.5 to 7.1, of high richness in phosphorus and potassium, medium in magnesium, and low in sulphur. The experiment was carried out in a split-block design with two factors in four repetitions. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of various doses of nitrogen (0, 60, 120, and 180 kg·haˉ¹ ) and sulphur (0, 20, and 60 kg·haˉ¹ ), taking into account their different application methods (in-soil and as foliar fertiliser), on the yield components of spring rapeseed cultivar Star. Fertilisation only with nitrogen significantly increased the values of all the studied components, while the sulphur-only fertilisation increased the number of seeds in siliques, as well as the mass of 1000 grains. The number of seeds per silique in none of the research years was significantly affected by the interaction between nitrogen and sulphur. As far as other characteristics are concerned, considering sulphur alongside nitrogen fertilisation, in general, resulted in a significant increase in their values, in comparison with the control plants.
Concentrations of available phosphorus (PE-R), and sulphate sulphur (S-SO₄²⁻) as well as activities of alkaline (AlP) and acid phosphatase (AcP), and arylsulphatase were assayed in a Luvisol fertilized with various doses (0, 20, 40, 60, 80 t·ha⁻¹) of farmyard manure (factor I) and nitrogen in mineral form (0, 45, 90, 135 kg ha⁻¹, factor II). PE-Rand S-SO₄²⁻ concentrations were significantly affected by fertilization with FYM and nitrogen, with the highest increase noted for soil samples taken from the objects with the manure dose 60 t ha⁻¹. Nitrogen used in the dose 135 kg ha⁻¹ increased significantly S-SO₄²⁻ and decrease PE-Rcontent as compared with their concentrations recorded for lower doses of this fertilizer. The highest concentration of available phosphorus was found in the sample collected in September. However, activities of phosphatases observed in the same sample were the lowest. The lowest arylsulphatase activity was noted in July, while sulphate sulphur concentrations in the same sample was the highest.
Extensive studies in the Sudety Mountains showed large local variations in the distribution of trace elements within organic soils. A negative correlation was observed between Zn and Pb concentrations and depths, while a positive correlation was found between the concentrations of some heavy metals, pH and S content. The high concentration of heavy metals in organic soils often was found in surface or subsurface horizons.
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