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European red deer are known to show a conspicuous phylogeographic pattern with three distinct mtDNA lineages (western, eastern and North-African/Sardinian). The western lineage, believed to be indicative of a southwestern glacial refuge in Iberia and southern France, nowadays covers large areas of the continent including the British Isles, Scandinavia and parts of central Europe, while the eastern lineage is primarily found in southeast-central Europe, the Carpathians and the Balkans. However, large parts of central Europe and the whole northeast of the continent were not covered by previous analyses. To close this gap, we produced mtDNA control region sequences from more than 500 red deer from Denmark, Germany, Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine and western Russia and combined our data with sequences available from earlier studies to an overall sample size of almost 1,100. Our results show that the western lineage extends far into the European east and is prominent in all eastern countries except for the Polish Carpathians, Ukraine and Russia where only eastern haplotypes occurred. While the latter may actually reflect the natural northward expansion of the eastern lineage after the last ice age, the present distribution of the western lineage in eastern Europe may in large parts be artificial and a result of translocations and reintroduction of red deer into areas where the species became extinct in historical times.
The objective of this study was to determine the carcass weight of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) stags, hinds and calves in Poland in successive months of the hunting season. The results of the study show that the average carcass weight of stags, hinds and calves in Poland is 115.05 kg, 75.38 kg and 42.48 kg, respectively. Stags characterized by the heaviest carcasses inhabit the provinces of Podkarpacie, Podlasie and Lublin, and those with the lightest carcasses can be found in the Lower Silesian and Pomeranian province. The highest carcass weight of hinds was noted in the Provinces of Podkarpacie and Lublin, while lowest – in the Lower Silesian and Pomeranian Province. In the group of calves, the highest and the lowest values of carcass weight were observed in the Provinces of Łódź and Lublin, and in the Lubuskie and West Pomeranian province, respectively. The average carcass weight of red deer varies significantly subject to the month of the hunting season. The heaviest stags are hunter-harvested in September, and the heaviest hinds and calves in December and February, respectively.
Red deer Ceruus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758 stags from the Mesola Wood (northern Italy) are known for the very simplified structure of their antlers. An analysts was made of 180 sets of cranial appendages on 41 different individuals observed over 10 years, Considering only stags 5 years and older, the mean number of tines per antler pair was 5.36. The maximum number of tines per beam was invariably 4: the bez tine and the crown were always absent. Yearlings and subadults exhibited scarcely developed cranial appendages, with a high incidence of knobbers and spikers respect­ively. While the poor performance of young classes may be mainly due to malnutrition, in adult stags a genetic component may prevail over dietary factors: selective shooting, inbreeding and genetic drift could have fixed the already simple design of their antlers.
This paper presents the results of a study on the 137Cs content in liver, kidneys and biceps muscles of red deer (Ceravus elaphus) obtained in Warmia and Mazury in 2000/2001. 93 samples from 51 red deer shot in the communes of Reszel, Lelkowo, Olecko, Kętrzyn, Pisz, Ruciane Nida, Ryn, Szczytno, Orzysz, Rozogi, and Olsztynek were analyzed. Concentrations of radiocesium in several samples of muscle tissue of red deer obtained from the European part of Russia was determined for reference. In Warmia and Mazury the average concentrations of 137Cs were 20.48 Bq/kg in muscle, 13.26 Bq/kg in liver, and 18.74 Bq/kg in kidneys. As such, these were very low figures. It was only in a few samples of red deer tissues obtained at two locations (Olsztynek, Zaporowo) that the levels of this radionuclide were elevated compared to those from other sites. The least radioactive were samples collected from carcasses of calves, in contrast to those taken from bucks, which contained the highest levels of radiocesium. A wide range of differences in the determinations was obtained. For example, concentrations of radiocesium in muscle tissues varied from 1.91 to 28.55 Bq/kg for calves, 0.91 to 79.20 for does and 2.69 to 137.20 Bq/kg for bulls. The 137Cs levels in red deer’s potential foodstuffs also varied from region to region, although it was to a certain extent positively correlated with the amounts of radiocesium determined in the red deer carcasses obtained in these areas.
Daily ranges of 19 (6 males, 13 females) adult red deerCervus elaphus Linnaeus, 1758 were studied using 24-h tracking sessions in Białowieża Primeval Forest (BPF), Poland, from 2001 to 2004. Overall, size of mean (± SE) daily ranges was larger for males (1.22 ± 0.10 km2) than females (1.00 ± 0.09 km2), although the difference was not significant. Similarly, mean daily ranges were 6–46% larger for males than females in each season, although there were no statistical differences in mean daily ranges among seasons for each sex. Abiotic factors, especially temperature, significantly affected daily ranges of females, but not males, suggesting sexual differences in response to weather variables. On a daily basis, males used 3% of their annual home range, whereas females used 12% of their annual home range, indicating females used their annual home ranges more intensely than males. Consecutive daily ranges overlapped little for each sex. Daily ranges of red deer in BPF were considerably larger than previously reported in Europe, suggesting factors unique to BPF also influenced size of daily ranges.
Giardia duodenalis is an ubiquitous flagellate that infects humans and many species of animals. This species exhibits great biotypic and genetic diversity. In the present study, we established short- and long-term in vitro cultures of G. duodenalis trophozoites originating from red deer and Thomson’s gazelle (artiodactyls) and genetically characterised the isolates by their glutamate dehydrogenase and triose phosphate isomerase gene sequences. The G. duodenalis isolates from red deer and the gazelle represented assemblages A (AIII sub-assemblage) and B. In conclusion, G. duodenalis assemblages and sub-assemblages can be associated with differences in growth rate in vitro cultures.
Climate variability greatly affects animals through direct and indirect effects. Animals with slow reproductive adaptation to ecological changes such as large mammals are likely to have evolved mechanisms to anticipate early such impacts of climate variability on the environment. One of the adaptive mechanisms between reproductive costs and benefits in mammals affects parental investment through biases in sex ratio. Deer might be likely to show an early detection of climate variability because conception takes place in early autumn, but the main raising cost in deer concerns lactation, which takes place at the end of the following spring. The aim of this paper is to assess whether there is a relationship between global indices of climate variability such as El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and sex ratio of a captive population of deer. Results showed that there was a negative correlation (r=−0.65) between sex ratio and ENSO indices between 1996 and 2008. El Niño enhances drier conditions during the summer in the Iberia Peninsula, which in turn favours a female bias. Results also suggest that the mechanism of early detection of climate variability exerts a strong effect on female reproductive physiology because the long-term stability of food resources in our setting has not markedly reduced it.
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