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Soil samples for analyses were collected in the whole area of the Cracow province. Basic soil properties and content of heavy metals were determined in the soil samples. It was found out that 47% of the examined soils of the Cracow province should be classified as the soils with elevated cadmium levels, 10% are soils with elevated lead levels and 27% are the soils with elevated zinc levels. The remaining soils should be classified as the soils with a natural content of these elements. Nickel and copper concentrations in all the examined soils are in the range of the natural content. The calculated correlation coefficients show that the content of cadmium was determined by the soil pH and content of copper by the content of C-org.
Urban growth is a prevalent challenge in many countries as it causes unexpected changes in land-uses of surrounding areas of cities and endangers the environment and natural resources. Thus, spatial planners and environmental managers always look for the models that simulate the expansion of urban land-use, and enable them to prevent unbalanced expansion of cities, and guide the developments to the desired areas. Several methods have been devised to simulate the dynamics of land-use development. However, the complexity of urban growth is recognized as a major barrier for such simulation methods. Agent-based models as a dynamic bottom-up approach use the real actors of land-use development as their basic components. Thus, such models have found popularity in simulating land-use development and urban sprawl modeling. This paper introduces a new agent-based model used for simulating urban land-use development in our study area located in Qazvin province, Iran. The orchards that encompass the western, eastern, and southern sides of Qazvin city are the most sensitive zones in the study area. The model uses 2005 data for the purpose of calibration and 2010 data for the goal of evaluation. A Kappa accuracy of 82.78% was finally achieved for the predication of the observed developments. Also, three zones of residential developments around Qazvin city were found to be endangered. Orchards located on the eastern side of Qazvin city are exposed to destruction and conversion into urban areas. The calibrated model can also be used as a useful tool for predicting future land-use developments and for recognizing endangered environmental zones.
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A commercial GLOBALG.A.P. standard and an integrated production system are the most popular methods to ensure the quality and safety of fruits. The implementation thereof in fruit farms is a consequence of food law requirements and expectations of consumers who want to consume products that are of high quality and, in the first place, safe for health. The implementation of those quality assurance (QA) methods is a prerequisite for selling products to large international retail chains at home and abroad. Motives for and barriers to application of QA methods were identified based on a survey of fruit growers, including those who implemented a GLOBALG.A.P. standard, and on interviews with experts. It was found that the major motives for implementing QA systems in orchard farms in Poland were the following: increased sale opportunities, entering new markets with products, and meeting customer requirements. Amidst the major barriers were the lack of economic incentives and the lack of knowledge about the methods and systems of quality assurance.
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Results of our experiments are interpreted according to fertilizing system developed by long-term experiments and investigations. The potassium fertilization and favourable N/K ratio can increase the frost tolerance of generative organs of fruit trees to some extent. The effect of suitable growing site can surpass the effect of fertilizers. Frequently, the increase of phosphorus and potassium levels in the soil and leaves are relatively small comparing to amount of fertilizers, because of the strong fixation in the fertilized soil layer and – in other cases – leaching from root zone. Main soil characters should be taken into consideration to determine the favourable phosphorus, potassium levels in the soil. The excess of lime can be compensated by potassium fertilization to some extent, but on acid soils the NPK fertilization may be more effective – or effective at all – following lime or dolomite application.
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Increasing the efficiency of spraying of orchards

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Orchards are sprayed at the agro-technical speed ranging from 4 to 6 km per hour. The research paid attention to the influence of a higher speed reaching 8 km/h on the quality of orchard trees spraying. Applying higher speed causes a labour efficiency increase while spraying and reduces time of treatment performance. However, increasing the speed should not decrease the quality of leaf coverage with the sprayed liquid. The results of the carried out research indicate a possibility of increasing the working speed without deteriorating the quality of spraying in dwarf orchards.
The paper presents the method of quantitative and qualitative evaluation of spray application based on deposit and coverage measurements on artificial targets. This relatively simple and fast method is proposed for small scale comparative field experiments with air-assisted orchard sprayers. Biological efficacy, being very important for the grower, is not enough informative method of evaluation of spraying technique from the cognitive point of view. Therefore fluorescent dye and filter paper as artificial targets was proposed. Water Sensitive Papers (WSP) are the most common artificial targets for spray coverage evaluation. Spray coverage expressed as a percentage of target area covered by spray give additional information what portion of protected area is in direct contact with the chemical. The method is demonstrated for the Joco tunnel sprayer and conventional air-assisted sprayers.
Hand fruit thinning was performed for four successive years on 'Gala' apple trees grafted on dwarf P 2 rootstock and planted at a density of 3333 trees/ha. Trees were 5 years old when the experiment started. Three thinning treatments were done with the assumption that apples at harvest should be medium sized (8 fruits per kg), large (7 fruits per kg), or very large (6 fruits per kg). To obtain such results, 84; 74 or 63 fruitlets were left per tree in the beginning of June. Two other treatments included thinning fruitlets with any defects, and no thinning in the control. To avoid subse­quent effects of fruit load on blooming intensity, each year new trees were chosen for the experiment. The results indicated that with tree aging fruit load must be decreased to assure the same mean fruit weight.
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