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Salicylic acid (SA), a key signaling molecule in higher plants, has been found to play a role in the response to a diverse range of phytopathogens and is essential for the establishment of both local and systemic-acquired resistance. Recent studies have indicated that SA also plays an important role in abiotic stress-induced signaling, and studies on SA-modulated abiotic tolerance have mainly focused on the antioxidant capacity of plants by altering the activity of anti-oxidative enzymes. However, little information is available about the molecular mechanisms of SA-induced abiotic stress tolerance. Here, we review recent progress toward characterizing the SA-regulated genes and proteins, the SA signaling pathway, the connections and differences between SA-induced tolerances to biotic and abiotic stresses, and the interaction of SA with other plant hormones under conditions of abiotic stress. The future prospects related to molecular tolerance of SA in response to abiotic stresses are also further summarized.
According to current teaching biogenic amines are released by exocytos- is, i. e. by evacuation of amine storing vesicles or granules into the extracellular space. The release of transmitter amines is quantal, i. e. occurs in packs of transmitter molecules. These packs are assumed to be identical with vesicle contents, in other words, the smallest releasable quantum equals the amine content of one vesicle. However, there are experimental observations which do not fit in with this version of an exocytotic release theory. Observed quantitative discrepancies could be explained if the release mechanism allowed a fractional release of transmitter amine from several vesicles instead of the total evacuation of a few. The lack of adequate knowledge about the mechanisms of storage of biogenic amines within the vesicles has up til now rendered it difficult to envisage the machinery behind a fractional release of the amine content of a vesicle. In extensive in-vitro studies we have found that the matrices of amine storing granules (i. e. from mast cells, chromaffin cells and nerve terminals) show the properties of weak cation exchanger materials, carboxyl groups serving as amine binding ionic sites. When exposed to cations like sodium and potassium ions, the amines are released from their storage sites according to kinetics characteristic of weak cation exchangers. In vivo, amine release from cat adrenals on splanchnic nerve stimulation also occurs according to ion echange kinetics. Histamine release from mast cells is considered to occur as the result of degranulation, i. e. the expulsion of histamine storing granules to the extracellular space, a typical example of exocytosis. The granules are assumed to loose their histamine by ion exchange, Na⁺ Hi⁺, on exposure to the sodium-rich extracellular medium. However, recent observations on histamine release from superfused mast cells suggest that the release of histamine, although caused by ion exchange, is due to intracellular ion exchange at granule sites between cytoplasmic potassium and activated mast cells as the consequence of intracellular potassium ion flux across the histamine carrying granules, degranulation and extracellular histamine release from expelled granules occurring only as the result of more extensive activation. The possibility of potassium ions being involved also in an ion exchange process behind the release of other biogenic amines e. g. at nerve terminals will be proposed. The amine release will still be quantal but the size of the released quanta will not depend on the total amine content of a vesicle but on the size of the fractions thereof being released, thereby explaining many of the quantitative discrepancies attached to the current exocytotic release theory. A fractional release theory may have interesting consequences for our thinking as to the physiology and pharmacology of processes involving storage and release of biogenic amines.
Ceramides, bioactive members of the sphingolipids can be generated by de novo synthesis, sphingomyelin hydrolysis and by acylation of sphingosine. Ceramides are known to regulate several cellular processes, including differentiation, growth suppression, cell senescence and apoptosis. The ceramide levels increased in several pathological conditions such as brain ischemia, hypoglycemia, inflammation and in neurodegenerative disorders. Sphingosine, a metabolite of ceramide is phosphorylated by sphingosine kinases (Sphk type 1and 2) to sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P). Sphingosine kinases are critical regulators of the sphingolipid biostat. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of ceramide and S1P in molecular mechanisms of neuronal cells death. The human neuroblastoma cell line (SH-SY5Y) was exposed to cell-permeable C2-ceramide. Ceramide decreased the viability of SH-SY5Y cells in concentration dependent manner. The intracellular free radical generation after ceramide treatment was about 3-fold higher comparing to control. Concomitantly our study indicated that ceramide induced poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) activation and decreased the level of apoptosis inducing factor (AIF) in mitochondria. Ceramide diminished the expression and level of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 protein. PARP-1 inhibitor enhanced the level of Bcl-2 protein and cells survival keeping the level of AIF in mitochondria unchanged. The recent studies indicated that ERK1/2 are involved directly in regulation of PARP-1 activity. The specific inhibitor of these kinases protected cells against death evoked by ceramide in our experimental conditions. Moreover, our study indicated, that sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) increased Bcl-2 gene expression and SH-SY5Y cells survival after ceramide treatment. Summarizing, our data present that PARP-1 inhibitor and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) through modulation of anti-apoptotic proteins protect mitochondria and neuronal cells against death evoked by ceramide. Supported by statutory budget of MRC and NCN Grant 5870/PO1/2011/40
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