The paper reviews female gametophyte development in vitro, the pathways of gynogenetic embryogeny, and autonomous endosperm development in vitro, and presents some implications for future investigation of apomictic processes. In most species studied so far, the pattern of embryo sac development was not altered by in vitro conditions, and some rare deviations could be additional sources of gynogenetic embryos. Meiosis in vitro resulted in megaspore formation followed by embryo sac development or direct embryogenesis. Gynogenesis in vitro occurs via various embryological processes. Embryos developed parthenogenetically from egg cells in twelve species. Apogamic development from the synergid or from antipodal cells was found in six species. Early development of gynogenetic embryos showed some similarities to zygotic embryogenesis, but then the embryos often remained undifferentiated or formed microcalli and protocorm-like structures. In nine species the central cell in ovary/ovule cultures was sporadically stimulated to divide into free-nuclear endosperm. Generally only one gynogenetic structure developed per embryo sac, and no embryos appeared in ovules containing autonomous endosperm. Cellular programs for the autonomous development of endosperm and embryo seem quite different or even competitive in vitro. Various approaches should be taken in future research on apomixis. Classical and novel cytological methods, and in vitro organ and cell cultures should be combined with molecular techniques and genetic studies.
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