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The aim of this paper is to discuss the legal and economic aspects of granting state aid for environmental protection in the Member States in respect of the competition policy of the European Union in the years 2004–2012. For the purpose of this study, deductive, descriptive and criticalcognitive methods were applied in order to analyze the theoretical knowledge contained in the literature of the subject as well as in legal and normative acts. Empirical data were derived from studies, documents and reports of the Directorate- General for Competition of the European Commission and the Offi ce of Competition and Consumer Protection. Based on the study, in the years 2004–2012 in the EU horizontal objectives mostly involved aid granted for the purposes of environmental protection (123 bln EUR, 24.3%). The total expenditure for environmental protection in the EU was strongly determined by decisions taken by Germany and Sweden. The most significant beneficiaries who were granted such aid were entrepreneurs from Great Britain, the Netherlands, Austria and Spain. More than half of the decisions (54%) issued by the European Commission were taken by five countries: Italy, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Germany and Spain. Investments in renewable sources of energy were most often subsidized. Moreover, companies were granted aid in order to adjust to requirements stricter than the EU standards in the field of environment. A smaller percentage of aid was allocated to finance environmental research and to improve energy efficiency (cogeneration, including heating and cooling systems). Analysis of the structure of the preferred instruments indicates that 77% of aid was granted as tax reductions and exemptions and the other 23% in the form of direct subsidies. In the years 2004–2012 state financial aid in Poland was mainly granted by the fiscal and customs authorities (77%) as well as in the form of subsidies and loans granted by the President of the National Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management (20%). Since the year 2008 a significant increase in aid including reduction of the excise tax in the sector of biofuels has been reported.
Reduced energy expenditure resulting from huddling in small mammals is mainly attributed to the reduced surface area/volume ratio of the huddling group. Here we propose a model to account for the reduction of the relative exposed area of grouped animals and for the diminution of metabolic rate during huddling. We attempt to explain mechanistically how changes in energy savings may operate. We applied our model to results obtained by grouping deformable bodies, and also laboratory meas­urements of oxygen consumption on huddling small mammals of four species. We found a small amount of diversity in the energetic efficiency of huddling. We estimate that the average relative area lost during huddling ranged between 28.7 and 39.1%. The average huddling effectiveness in the studied species was 42%, which is a significant fraction of the energy/matter budget of a small mammal, especially under winter conditions.
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Thermodynamic steam traps used in the wood industry

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"Thermodynamic steam traps used in the wood industry". We use three big families of demountable steam traps in the wood industry - mechanical steam traps with closed or open float, thermodynamic and thermostatic steam traps. In addition to these families dismountable steam traps have appeared on the market. They are produced in thermostatic and mechanical float versions. For heating devices, in which we have to deal with heat load, changing in the wide broad, which may lead to suspension of the condensate, we use pumping steam traps combining the features of float steam traps and portion pump. Using appropriate steam trap selection criteria, we are able to eliminate energy loss due to steam loss.
Huddling is effective in decreasing metabolic rate permitting energy saving. However, this decrease varies among different species depending on physical, physio­logical and behavioral characteristics of the huddled individuals. Following a general model we analyzed the effects of ambient temperature, thermal conductance and ontogeny on the huddling effectiveness (energy saving level from huddling behaviour) in white mice Mus musculus. Also, we studied the effects of thermal conductance by using the Sigmodontine Abrothrix andinus as a model organism, To put our results in a general context we analyzed literature data of huddling of several species of rodents at different temperatures. No effects of temperature and thermal conductance was detected. However, based on literature data, we found that at temperatures lower or near thermoneutrality the huddling effectiveness decrease, Also, the huddling effectiveness depends on the stage of development. Temperature probably affects the intensity of huddling, while changes in huddling effectiveness at early stages of development are likely consequences of structural (morphological) changes during the ontogeny. In this sense, it appears that the capacity to change the body form is and individual structural constraint which is extended to the huddling group.
Primary energy consumption in Poland, European Union and word-wide has been presented. Energy sources as well as export-import balance of fossil fuels of selected countries have been correlated. The study allows to state that energy sources situation, availability of resources and vital investments require an intensive development of nuclear energy sector and renewable energy sources in Poland.
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