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Analysis of endosperm development in plants from contaminated sites (vicinity of the Żelazny Most copper post-flotation reservoir in the Legnica-Głogów Copper District, and the zinc spoil in Katowice-Wełnowiec) showed general similarities in the pattern of endosperm formation in Echium vulgare, but also deviation from typical haustorium structure (~23% frequency), premature degeneration of the haustorium, or degeneration both of the haustorium and endosperm proper (~40%). The most significant irregularities of endosperm development included lower or higher number of nuclei in two cells of the lateral part of the endosperm, lower ploidy level of haustorium nuclei, and cellularization (instead of coenocytic structure) in the lateral cells of the endosperm. Irregularities and degenerative processes presumably resulted from the stress of environment conditions. Because of the nutritive function of those structures, degeneration or atypical structure of the endosperm and its haustorium in some maturing seeds may reduce the fertility of plants colonizing contaminated sites.
After a prolonged period of uncertainty about the precise role of maternal genes in initiating embryogenesis in flowering plants, considerable evidence for the involvement of maternal genes in embryo and endosperm development in Arabidopsis thaliana has accumulated in recent years. Much attention has centered on a group of mutants known as fis, which display an ability to initiate partial embryogenesis and endosperm development in the absence of double fertilization. This article presents a brief overview of our current understanding of the role of non-zygotic parental genes in the development of these products of double fertilization in A. thaliana. Evidence shows that the expression of paternal alleles of some genes is frequently delayed during embryogenesis and endosperm development, and that the silencing occurs at the transcriptional level by genomic imprinting.
According to many reports, the endosperm of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. follows Nuclear-type development whereby the primary endosperm nucleus divides without cytokinesis, ultimately to produce a peripheral, multinuclear endosperm tissue. However, some features of endosperm development in seeds collected from populations in central South Carolina reveal striking differences from the Nuclear type of other Brassicaceae. Nuclei produced by the first division of the central or slightly chalazal primary endosperm nucleus quickly migrate to opposite poles on the longitudinal axis, where the chalazal nucleus immediately becomes enshrouded with dense cytoplasm. Divisions from that point onward are free-nuclear and frequent in the micropylar portion, which enlarges markedly as it becomes multinucleate. The chalazal endosperm is sometimes positioned in a different focal plane as a result of curvature of the immature seed toward amphitropous form. It does not enlarge appreciably and accumulates only 2-8 nuclei before it gradually degenerates, persisting until digested during maturation of the developing embryo. Thus, the functional endosperm is produced primarily by the micropylar chamber.
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