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Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the most widely used drugs in both human and veterinary medicine. NSAIDs inhibit the enzyme cyclooxygenase in the arachidonic acid cascade. This mechanism results in a reduced or blocked synthesis of prostaglandins. Eicosanoids are very important for reproduction and their inhibition by NSAIDs may cause disorders in the ovarian cycle. The article summarizes the latest knowledge about the effects of NSAIDs on corpus luteum function.
The main function of the corpus luteum (CL) is progesterone (P4) production, a factor which regulates the estrous cycle and provides proper embryo and fetus development, the hormone that determines the efficiency of reproduction. Estrus synchronization is one of the basal methods applied in reproductive biotechnics. However, pharmacological manipulation of the estrous cycle may cause various CL dysfunctions, including abnormal P4 synthesis after superovulation or synchronization of the cycle. In the authors studies the influence of different methods of estrous synchronization (injection of PGF₂α analogues: dinoprost, cloprostenol and luprositiol; or gestagens treatment: norgestomet) on CL sensitivity to luteotropic factors (LH and PGE₂) was investigated. With the use of PGF₂α analogues the lower action of luteotropic factors on the CL function was demonstrated in the CL after estrus synchronization. Physiological CL sensitivity to the stimulation was observed in CL from the cows with norgestomet-synchronized cycles. The only effects of dinoprost on CL functioning in vitro were conferrable and similar to the natural PGF₂α action. Other PGF₂α analogues much more powerfully and differently influenced the cells/tissues of the bovine reproductive tract compared to natural PGF₂α action. Lower P4 production in the CL after hormonal manipulation may cause insufficient protection of the embryo by the CL products during the first critical pregnancy period and lead to the early termination of pregnancy.
The development of the yellow body and ovarial vesicles was evaluated in 20 cows during an entire oestrus cycle (group II, n = 9) and an oestrus ended by pregnancy (group I, n = 11) using a linear ultrasonograph (5 MHz). The investigations were performed on the first day of oestrus and then on the 5, 12 and 18 day after oestrus. The maximum diameter of the yellow body was noted on the 12th day of the oestrus cycle. At the same time (depending on the phase of oestrus) 25 (40%) of the yellow bodies possessed a vesicle situated internally. This phenomenon did not affect either the length of oestrus or the effects of insemination. At the same time in the group of pregnant cows the size of the yellow body with a vesicle was on the 12th day significantly larger than in group II (p < 0,05). A large vesicle was observed with a similar frequency in both groups of cows in 30, 50 and 75% of the animals on the 5, 12 and 18 day of the cycle, respectively. The large size of the vesicle observed on the 5th day of oestrus suggests that it is a vesicle which dominates the first period of growth of the ovarial vesicles.
It has been demonstrated recently that phytoestrogens (ekwol, para-ethyl-phenol and 17β-estradiol) modulate steroidogenesis and enhance luteolytic PGF₂α and cytokine action in bovine corpus luteum (CL). The regression of bovine CL is dependent on the appropriate contact between all the types of CL cells and induction of consecutive luteolysis mediators. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of phytoestrogens on the secretion of luteolytic mediators depending on cell type and cell-to-cell contact. The studies were conducted according to the earlier established cell coculture model, which allowed the studies of interactions between steroidogenic cells, endothelial cells and immune CL in vitro. As indicators of phytoestrogene actions during luteolysis the authors measured the levels of PGF₂α, leukotrien C₄ and stable nitric oxide metabolites (NO₂/NO₃) using immuno-enzymatical assays (EIA). Phytoestrogenes stimulated secretion of PGF₂α, LTC₄ and NO₂/NO₃ in steroidogenic cells (p < 0.05) at the highest level. Cell cultures in cocultures (in composition steroidogenic, endothelial, immune cells) did not influence the effect of phytoestrogens, which indicated that steroidogenic cells are the main target for phytoestrogen action within the bovine CL.
This paper presents current information on the regulatory mechanism of the endocrine function of the corpus luteum in cyclic and pregnant dogs. Corpus luteum function in the first half of diestrus or pregnancy (< day 30) is independent of gonadotrophins. The mechanisms regulating corpus luteum function in this phase are largely unknown. It seems that an important role in the controlling of progesterone biosynthesis is played by StAR (steroidogenic acute regulatory protein) and 3β-HSD (3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase). Recently, it has been demonstrated that prostaglandin E2 acts luteotrophically by increasing the expression of StAR. In addition, the action of progesterone on its receptors at the para-/autocrine level appears to serve as a luteotrophic factor. There is no significant difference in the regulation of corpus luteum function between pregnant and non-pregnant bitches during this time. Corpus luteum function is fully gonadotrophin-dependent during the second half of diestrus. Prolactin and, to a lesser extent, LH are the main luteotrophic factors. The slow process of luteal regression starts by day 30 after ovulation, and it takes place in spite of the increased availability of pituitary luteotrophic hormones (LH, prolactin). During luteal regression, progesterone concentration gradually decreases. This decrease is caused by a reduced expression of StAR and 3β-HSD, as well as by degenerative changes in the luteal cells. In nonpregnant bitches, progesterone concentration decreases slowly and reaches baseline values 80-90 days after ovulation. In pregnant bitches, on the other hand, progesterone decreases rapidly 1-2 days before parturition. In non-pregnant bitches, luteal regression is a passive process in the absence of luteolytic factors, whereas in pregnant bitches, luteolysis is an active process. This is due to a rapid progesterone decrease to the threshold level and the release of PGF2α from the fetal part of the placenta.
The corpus luteum is an endocrine organ that exhibits extremely rapid growth, development, and regression during the course of each oestrus cycle. At the end of the luteal phase there is an orderly sequence of functional and structural changes in the corpus luteum connected with its regression. This article focuses on selected mechanisms controlling these changes. In these mechanisms, apart from central regulation, the essential role of local monocytes/macrophages and endothelial cells is stressed, as well as intercellular interactions. The research of the last years shows that corpus luteum regression is related to apoptosis. The functional changes that have been initialized by prostaglandin F2 are accompanied by the activation of immunological system cells, which while relieving cytokines work like local regulators in remodeling the corpus luteum. Consequently, metabolic changes, the disappearance of luteal tissue and the final expiration of progesterone production occur.
Due to a similar chemical structure to 17β-estradiol (E₂), phytoestrogens may inhibit or modulate endogenous estrogen action. Although the authors demonstrated that phytoestrogens did not influence basal progesterone (P4) secretion, nonetheless it simultaneously inhibited the stimulation of luteinizing hormone (LH) and prostaglandin (PG) E₂ on P4 release in bovine corpus luteum (CL) in vitro. Since phytoestrogens are luteolytic factors in the late luteal stage (enhanced PGF₂α secretion in vitro and the level in plasma), these factors possibly also play some role in cytokine action (mediators of PGF₂α during luteolysis) in cattle. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of phytoestogen metabolites on the sensitivity of bovine corpus luteum cells on tumor necrosis factor α, interferon γ and interleukin 1β action, by measuring the level of PGF₂α and stable metabolites of nitric oxide and by determining the viability of CL cells on day 15 of the estrous cycle. Phytoestrogens can increase functional luteolysis by enhancing PGF₂α and NO synthesis stimulated by cytokines. Moreover, phytoestrogens can modulate structural luteolysis by increasing the sensitivity of steroidogenic cells on the cytotoxic action of cytokines in bovine CL.
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