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The paper characterizes and discusses the immune response mechanisms of the honey bee, mainly bee larvae, to infection caused by Paenibacillus larvae, the absolute pathogen of honey bee larvae. A statistically significant increase in abaecin was found in the youngest larvae during 24 h after infection that is during the germination of P. larvae endospores and the penetration of vegetative cells into the gut epithelium. Moreover, P. larvae stimulate the production of defensin - an immune protein of bee larvae. The comparative analysis of social insects and solitary model insects Drosophila melanogaster and the mosquito Anopheles gambiae revealed a significant differentiation in the number of genes and their products that play a significant role in insects’ protection against microorganisms. The comparison of the number of genes responsible for three stages of immune defense: recognition of foreignness, information transfer and effector activity showed 71 genes in the honey bee, but 209 and 196 genes in the Anopheles gambiae and Drosophila melanogaster, respectively. These tremendous differences in the number of immune genes between the discussed representatives of insects could be explained by the development of behavioral protective mechanisms in the honey bee, and probably also by the limited number of honey bee pathogens.
The honey bee disease American foulbrood (AFB) is a serious problem since its causative agent (Paenibacillus larvae) has become increasingly resistant to conventional antibiotics. From the year 2000 the number of isolates of P. larvae resistant against oxytetracycline (OTC) has increased. Therefore, since 2000 many antibiotics, chemotherapeutic propolis and plant extracts were tested in vitro and in vivo against P. larvae. The most active in the in vitro tests appeared to be deoxycycline, minocycline, rifampicin and lincomycin. Among the 35 examined antibacterial compounds active against P. larvae were narasin, salinomycin and tylosine. In many countries tylosine, tilomycosis have been recommended for the control of AFB, while microsamicine was recommended in Japan. The studies with plain essential oils did not succeeded. The propolis extracts from the various parts of the world showed significant inhibition of P. larvae. Due to the evolution of the resistance of P. larvae to conventional antibiotic treatments, the research on normal bee microflora (Bacillus, Paenibacillus, and Brevibacillus) is an important step in identifying possible new active tools to treat AFB in honey bee colonies.
A characteristic of Paenibacillus larvae with a special reference to the current view on the systematics of this pathogen of the honey bee (Apis mellifrea L.) was presented. A great differentiation of the phenotypic and biochemical properties of the isolates often lead to errors in the diagnostics of AFB. The currently used methods of controlling AFB not only cannot eliminate the pathogen from AFB-affected colonies, but actually promote the selection of strains of higher pathogenicity to the honey bee larvae. The behavior of worker bees that quickly remove dead larvae from the sick colony may mask the symptoms of AFB. The genotyping of P. larvae should introduce PCR as a precise method for the diagnostics of AFB as soon as possible.
Furanokumaryny występujące w surowcach zielarskich, takich jak arcydzięgiel lekarski (Archangelica officinalis Hoffm.), pasternak (Pastinaca sativa L.) oraz barszcz (Heraceleum sosnowskyi Manden.) wykazują szerokie spektrum aktywności biologicznej, a zwłaszcza działanie przeciwbakteryjne i przeciwgrzybicze. Działanie przeciwgrzybicze jest ukierunkowane na dermatofity oraz na grzyb Ascospliaera apis - patogen pszczoły miodnej. W wyniku przeprowadzonych badań opracowano metodę otrzymywania zespołów furanokumarynowych metodą ekstrakcji ciągłej, biologiczną metodę oceny aktywności przeciwgrzybiczej in vitro oraz opracowano preparaty zalecane do testów laboratoryjnych i klinicznych.
The purpose of this article is to characterize patients, reviewing symptoms and types of foreign bodies removed from the gastrointestinal tract of small animals with the use of endoscopy techniques: minimally invasive surgical and diagnostic procedures. The subject analysis consisted of 35 clinical cases of patients with a foreign body identified in the esophageal or in the stomach. The most commonly reported symptoms were sialorrhoea, regurgitation, gagging, dispiritedness and lack of appetite. In some animals no clinical symptoms were observed. The most common foreign bodies were bones and elements of toys. None of the examined patients developed complications in the form of a wall perforation of the gastrointestinal tract. Following treatment, 34 animals fully recovered. However in one case, while removing the bones from the esophagus, a dog died. The removal of foreign bodies using endoscopy is an effective and relatively simple diagnostic procedure. Patients quickly recover after the application of appropriate pharmacological and dietary treatment.
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