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The OvSynch program was formulated over 20 years ago (it consists in administering gonadoliberin on the day of starting the procedure, then injecting prostaglandin 7 days after the GnRH initial injection, and administration of GnRH two days after applying PGF₂α. The procedure ends in the insemination of a female 16–20 hours after administering the final dose of the hormone) and it is commonly applied in cow reproduction management protocols. It has evolved into numerous modifications which has boosted its effectiveness. They have consisted in replacing GnRH with hCG or pLH, diversifying the time of the final injection of GnRH, which follows the prostaglandin injection, and postponing insemination after the final GnRH dose, as well as changing the dosage of the aforementioned hormones. To expedite the Ovsynch protocol, so-called PreSynch was used, which involved administering two prostaglandin injections with a 14 day interval before applying the initial GnRH dose in protocol OvSynch. The interval between the second prostaglandin injection in the PreSynch program varied (PreSynch-14, PreSynch-12, PreSynch-11, PreSynch-11 and PreSynch). The pregnancy rate can be also improved by introducing GnRH injection before starting the OvSynch program, administered 7, 6 or 4 days before the initial GnRH injection in OvSynch (G7G, G6G, G4G). Higher pregnancy rates, in comparison to the PreSynch-OvSynch program, can be obtained by applying the DoubleOvsynch protocol. In this protocol two OvSynch programs are administered in a 7-day interval. Lately, alternative programs such as DoubleSynch and EstraDoubleSynch have emerged. The DoubleSynch protocol consists in administering PGF₂α in day 0, GnRH on the second day, another PGF application on the 9th day, and the second GnRH dose on the 11th day. Artificial insemination is performed in oriented time (TAI). This solution is used in order to achieve a higher percentage of pregnant cows in comparison to the PreSynch+OvSynch protocol. It also enables synchronisation of heat and ovulation, both after the first and the second hormonal treatment of GnRH. In EstraDoubleSynch protocol the second injection of GnRH at the end of the DoubleSynch program is replaced by estradiol benzoate (BE) administration on the 10th day, in order to acquire a higher level of follicle waves synchronisation and ovulation rate. Those programs applied in cow reproduction management can positively influence fertility and boost cow breeding profitability.
There are at least several ways of detecting bovine ovaries, which vary in accuracy, effort and cost associated with the implementation and operation of equipment designed for this purpose. Heat in cows can be most easily detected by systematic, thorough observation of individuals in the herd. Vaginal mucosal resistance measurements were also used, for example, the fitting of ‘balloons’ with paint at the base of the tail or on the back, temperature measurement in the vagina, milk and rumen, determination of progesterone in milk and blood. Currently, high-performance dairy herds are routinely introduced in controlled breeding programs, including timed artificial insemination (TAI) and automated estrus detection (AED) or activity monitoring system (AMS). Most of the commercially available heat detection devices are based on accelerometers or pedometers. These devices have the ability to detect heat in 81.4% to 91.3%. The sensitivity of heat detection was 58.9%, 63.3%, 56.7% and 35.9% respectively for accelerometers (Heatime), pedometers (SAE Afikim, Kibbutz Afikim, Israel), KaMaR markers and heat detectors (Scratchcard). When two of the three systems were combined (different combinations), the sensitivity increased to 75.9%. Similarly, after the combination of visual detection, the sensitivity increased to 96% and the specificity to 90% (visual observation and AMS). Activity monitoring systems are a good and proven tool for improving the management of cows. They respect the principles of well-being as an alternative to reproductive management based solely on traditional methods of detecting ovulation or hormone programs (TAI). It seems, however, that further improvement of the cows fertility in industrial cattle farms will be possible in the future not only using one modern heat detection system, but combining several different methods of heat detection and synchronization.
Rectal palpation has been an integral part of a clinical examination of large animals. This seemingly easy technique can pose certain difficulties for veterinarians and therefore requires considerable training. The rectal examination course included in the traditional program of veterinary studies is mainly based on practical classes with live animals. However, there is a common belief that the use of live patients is burdened with certain disadvantages in the form of a lack of control over the student’s actions. What is more, a rectal palpation can have a negative effect on the animal organism. Following the increased focus on animal welfare in society and taking into account both ethical and medical concerns, a number of alternative teaching devices have appeared on the market in order to replace or significantly reduce the participation of live animals in the didactic process. Breed’n Betsy – one of the first simulators – is used to teach the diagnosis of the oestrus cycle and pregnancy phase as well as the artificial insemination or the embryo transfer. The appliance was soon followed by more technically advanced didactic equipment. Simulators, such as Haptic Cow, use virtual reality and haptic technology. The computer-generated, virtual objects representing the cow’s anatomical structure are displayed on the screen. This technique enables the tutor to follow student’s movements “inside the cow” and provide them with immediate instructions. Numerous studies indicate that the use of simulators, integrated with the traditional teaching techniques, brings highly satisfactory results.
Early pregnancy diagnosis in ruminants, especially in high production herds, is one of the most important components of reproduction management. Reducing the time between insemination and the exclusion or confirmation of pregnancy is of major economic importance. That is why the traditional method of pregnancy examination by transrectal palpation is increasingly complemented by additional tests, such as ultrasonography. An alternative to these methods of pregnancy diagnosis are also simple field tests. The best known are tests for progesterone and estrone sulphate concentrations. Over the last few years, the measuring of pregnancyassociated glycoproteins (PAGs) has also been gaining popularity. In cattle, this method can be used as early as the 28th day of pregnancy, when the plasma concentration of PAGs exceeds 1ng/ml. Maximum values of pregnancy-associated glycoproteins are observed about day 240 after fertilization. After calving, their level quickly decreases. In sheep, the concentration of PAGs increases significantly in the 3rd and 4th weeks of gestation and reaches its maximum level around the 9th week. In goats, the concentration of PAGs differs between races, but its measurement can be quite a reliable indirect method of pregnancy diagnosis. The PAGs value in this species grows until about the 8th week after insemination and, depending on the breed, reaches a maximum value of 50 to 69 ng/ml. One limitation for the use of PAGs field tests may be false positives which occur after the death of the embryo. Similarly, an increased PAGs concentration can persists for up to about 70 days after calving. Moreover, the PAGs concentration is also affected by the health, age and milk production of the female. The advantages of field tests are the simplicity of performance, the ease of reading and interpreting the results and the short time needed to complete the entire procedure. Field tests based on the commonly used ELISA method are characterized by low invasiveness (blood, milk), combined with high sensitivity and specificity. Their rapid application under field conditions makes them an excellent extension of diagnostic capabilities, especially in large herds of cows.
Early diagnosis of pregnancy in cattle is an important factor determining the profitability of breeding. It can shorten the intercalving period by accelerating the next insemination procedure or diagnosing the cause of infertility. Palpation of the reproductive system per rectum is a method used for more than 100 years. It involves palpation of the uterine horns to detect the fetal vesicle, fetus water and the embryo itself. The earliest time when the fetal bladder can be detected is the 28th day after insemination in heifers or the 32nd-35th day in multiparous cows. The method is fast and cheap, it does not require additional equipment, and the result is immediate. An effective examination by this method is not easy and requires theoretical and practical preparation. The method also involves the risk of causing fetal damage, resulting in the loss of pregnancy and deterioration in the cow’s well-being. An upgrade of the method is the introduction of ultrasound rectal examination, which increases the efficiency of diagnosis and shortens the time from insemination to examination. Despite its long history, the diagnosis of early pregnancy by rectal examination has not lost its importance or popularity. Although new methods of diagnosing pregnancy continue to be introduced in today’s practice, they do not diminish the importance of rectal palpitation.
Prostaglandin F2α and its synthetic analogues, because of their luteolytic properties, have found wide application in the reproduction of domestic animals, including cattle, swine and horses. They are used to induce and synchronize heat, ovulation and parturition, as well as to improve the results of insemination and early-stage pregnancy termination. The ongoing discussions regarding animal welfare include the question of the lowest effective dose of hormones in individual species and how it could be reduced by selecting the optimal route of hormone administration. Intramuscular injection is the recommended method of administering prostaglandins to cows, pigs and mares. Due to the different sensitivities of these species to prostaglandins, the recommended therapeutic dose varies significantly from one species to another. The luteolytic effect also depends on the route of administration. Studies on alternative routes of injection report good therapeutic effects after administration of the hormone subcutaneously (SC), into intravaginal submucosa (IVSM), at the BAI-HUI acupuncture point or at the ischiorectal fossa (IRF). The injection site, the dose and the type of prostaglandin used may intensify negative effects, such as an increase in the heart or breathing rate and increased sweating.
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