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The first case of the left displacement of the abomasum was described in 1950 by Begg. Since then, the LDA has been diagnosed worldwide. It has been shown that there is a correlation between its increased occurrence and an increase in the intensity of cattle dairy production. The treatment methods include surgical ones, which are aimed at two objectives: reposition and fixation of the abomasum to the abdominal wall. The methods using the classic laparotomy include median abomasopexy, right-sided omentopexy and left-sided abomasopexy. A second group of surgical methods consists of procedures that are minimally invasive. These include percutaneous fixation, which requires positioning the patient on the back, and laparoscopic procedures performed by Janowicz and modified by Christiansen and later on by Newman. Recently, laparoscopic methods have become increasingly accessible and popular. The aim of the study was to evaluate the efficacy of laparoscopic treatment of the LDA, using equipment of the authors’ own design. The study involved the observation of 10 cows (aged between 24 and 90 months) treated surgically not later than 24 hours after the diagnosis. These animals were operated on with modified instruments. The modification presented here consisted in making a tube equipped with a trocar lock, which made it possible to reposition the abomasum non-traumatically and to fix it at the bottom of the abdomen. Signs of normal behaviour were observed, and all animals were eating and ruminating within 3-6 hours after surgery. The modification of the spieker proposed by the authors shortens laparoscopy and makes it safer by eliminating iatrogenic complications, such as accidental perforation of the bowels or diaphragm by the trocar edge.
This review presents evolution and current possibilities, state of knowledge and prospects for cryopreservation of pig embryos. In the early stages the development of this technology for use in the international pig industry was slow. Initially freezing technologies utilized the stepwise method to cryopreserve swine embryos. Conventional freezing methods will not work for pigs embryos, which are extremely sensitive to slow cooling below temperatures of approximately 15°C, since, as they cool, they undergo physiological and structural changes that leave them incapable of normal development. Using a rapid cooling processes – vitrification - is thought to outpace the damaging effects of slow cooling. It allows for an increase of the cryopreserved pig embryo survival rate to more than 80% in the laboratory. At present, vitrification is regarded as an alternative to traditional slow freezing procedures which do not offer satisfactory results for the cryopreservation of porcine embryos. Recently a novel approach consisting of a minimum sample size, increased cooling rate from 2500 C/min to 20.000 C/min, and the use propyleno and ethyleno glicol in the vitrification solution have been effective for crypreservation of pig embryos. Many factors such as the stage of embryonic development, cryoprotectant toxicity, the composition of vitryfication solution, cooling and warming rates can influence the survival of pig emryos after vitrification. Peri-hatching and hatched blastocysts tolerate slow freezing without special pretreatment, while morula and early blastocysts do not survive this cryopreservation procedure. Vitrification results in higher survival rates after warming when untreated early-to-hatched-blastocysts-stage embryos are used. An increase in cooling rate decreases sensitivity to slow freezing and may permit a reduction of cryoprotectant concentration.
This review presents the evolution and current possibilities, state of knowledge and prospects for in vitro production of pig embryos. Development of this technology for use in the international pig industry remains slow. IVP systems are generally comprised of three stage-specific culture environments: in vitro oocyte maturation (IVM), in vitro fertilization (IVF), and in vitro embryo culture (IVC). Hormonal supplements, such as FSH, eCG or hCG and follicular fluid, are added to the IVM medium in order to mimic the in vivo situation and stimulate nuclear maturation of the oocyte. Important elements are the cumulus cells that play a protective and metabolic role in oocyte cytoplasmic maturation. Efficiency of cytoplasmic maturation includes the ability of the oocyte to block the penetration of more than one sperm and also to support the decondensation of the sperm head within the ooplasm of the fertilized oocyte. The main feature, widely perceived to be a distinctive trait in porcine IVF, is the high prevalence of polyspermic fertilization. In the great majority of IVP studies on the pig, oocytes are harvested from the ovaries of prepubertal gilts out of necessity, due to the relative unavailability of adult sow ovaries. In fact, penetration rates exceeding 80% are typically achieved in prepubertal gilt oocytes, but polyspermy rates rarely measure less than 40%. When using sow oocytes, polyspermy rates in the range of 10% are routinely achieved. Instead, a number of porcine IVP groups routinely obtain a blastocyst formation rate of about 30% from in vitro matured oocytes, which is on par with that achieved in other farm animal species. Parameter for evaluating the success of a given porcine IVP system are also not without their pitfalls. Parameters used to define embryo quality include blastocyst morphology, total and inner cell mass, cell number, chromosomal abnormalities, metabolism, gene expression and apoptosis. One parameter of particular interest in the pig is apoptosis. The nuclear apoptotic features can be visualized using relatively simple fluorescent DNA-labeling techniques called TUNEL.
The release of oxytocins (OT) through the anterior lobe of the of hypophysis in small ruminants is not indispensable for maintaining milk production. The lack of premilking stimulation in small ruminants does not influence the milk flow pattern during milking. Ewes are machine milked most frequently at high pulsation rates (from 120 to 180 cycles per min), as well as low vacuum levels in milking installation (32 to 40 kPa) and at a pulsation ratio of 50%. Optimal machine milking conditions for goats are a mean pulsation frequency of 70-90 cycles/min, at vacuum levels of 36-44 kPa and a pulsation ratio of 65%. A well shaped and healthy udder of small ruminants intended for machine milking should have a large volume, with a globose shape and clearly defined teats, soft and elastic tissues with palpable gland cisterns inside, moderate height, not surpassing the hock, marked intermammary ligament, teats of medium size (length and width), implanted nearly vertical. Overmilking brought about congestion and swelling of teats, dysfunction of muscles of teat sphincters, as well as injuries of the epithelium and teat canal outlet. Overmilking may be associated with the reduction of antibacterial substances and incomplete closure of the teat canal. Causes of teat-end injuries in small ruminants during lactation are overmilking and machine stripping, as well as the period of mother-sucking. Udder-halves with injured teats are infected to a higher degree than halves with healthy teats. Annual checking and regular maintenance of milking machines were to a large degree decisive factors for udder health and the hygienic value of milk.
The development of assisted reproductive techniques in dogs creates new possibilities to protect many species from extinction. The efficiency of oocytes maturation in bitches in vitro is much lower in comparison to other mammals. That is why there are many limitations in the development of methods of reproduction biotechnology in this species, i.e. embryo production (IVP), cryopreservation of semen or the transfer of nuclei. The oocytes of bitches existing in the follicle environment are influenced by the activity of progesterone, while the re-start and finish of the meiotic division in these cells takes place in the uterine tube. In contrast to bitches, in the case of the majority of mammals estrogens are dominating hormones and ovulating oocytes are in metaphase II of meiotic division. Differences in the process of oocytes maturation between several species of mammals make it impossible to create optimal and at the same time universal conditions of in vitro production. A relatively late implantation of the embryo in dogs can also be observed. In the present article questions connected with the process of in vivo and in vitro oocytes maturation were described as well as the fertilization and initial stages of embryo development in dogs.
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