Biochemical targets in filarial worms for selective antifilarial drug design

• Autorzy: Gupta S , Srivastava A.K.
• Języki publikacji: EN

Abstrakty

EN

Filarial nematodes infect more than 150 million people worldwide and are responsible for diseases including elephantiasis, river blindness and tropical pulmonary eosinophilia. Antifílarial agents that can kill all the stages in the life cycle of causative filar- iae have yet to be developed. Very little effort has been made towards rational drug design, employing knowledge gained from studies of the biochemistry and physiology of filarial worms and of their interactions with their specific vertebrate hosts. In this review, we highlight the research and development of rational antifílarial agents and we discuss the pitfalls since the discovery of diethylcarbamazine, the only drug of choice for controlling filariasis, despite its adverse side effects.

Słowa kluczowe

EN

filariasis; filarial worm; filarial nematode; nematode; antifilarial drug; biochemical target; filarial metabolism

• Wydawca: -
• Czasopismo: Acta Parasitologica
• Rocznik: 2005
• Tom: 50
• Numer: 1
• Opis fizyczny: p.1-18,fig.,ref.

Twórcy

autor

Gupta S

• Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow-22 6001, India

autor

Srivastava A.K.

Bibliografia

• Adelsberger H., Scheur T., Dudel J. 1997. A patch clamp study of a glutamatergic chloride channel on pharyngeal muscle of the nematode Ascaris suum. Neuroscience Letters, 230, 183-186.
• Agarwal A., Mishra S.K., Rathaur S., Chatterjee R.K., Katiyar J.C., Ghatak S. 1982. Dopamine-ß-hydroxylase in parasitic nematodes. Indian Journal of Parasitology, 6, 223-225.
• Agarwal A., Saxena J.K., Ghatak S. 1986. Enzymes of tricarboxylic acid cycle in microfilarial and adult stages of Setaria cervi. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 84, 260-263.
• Aisien S.O., Hellmund C., Walter R.D. 1995. Characterization of the arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase in Onchocerca volvulus. Parasitology Research, 82, 369-371.
• Akinwande A.I., Akinrimisi E.O. 1980. Comparative study of the rates of DNA, RNA and protein synthesis in Litomosoides carinii and host tissue. IRCS Medical Science, 8, 565-566.
• Al-Qaoud K.M., Fleischer B., Hoerauf A. 1998. The Xid defect imparts susceptibility to experimental murine filariosis-association with a lack of antibody and IL-10 production by B cells in response to phosphorylcholine. International Immunology, 10, 17-25.
• Ansari A.A., Yusufi A.N., Siddiqi M. 1973. Lipid composition of the filarial parasite Setaria cervi. Journal of Parasitology, 59, 939-940.
• Anwar N., Ansari A.A., Ghatak S., Krishna Murti C.R. 1977. Setaria cervi: enzymes of glycolysis and PEP-succinate pathway. Zeitschrift für Parasitenkunde, 51, 275-283.
• Anwar N., Srivastava A.K., Ghatak S. 1978. Effect of antifilariais on the metabolic activity of Setaria cervi. Indian Journal of Parasitology, 2, 101-105.
• Armstrong R.N. 1991. Glutathione-S-transferases: reaction mechanism, structure and function. Chemical Research in Toxicology, 4, 131-140.
• Asch H.L., Read C.P. 1975. Transtegumental absorption of amino acids by male Schistosoma mansoni. Journal of Parasitology, 61, 378-379.
• Bankov I., Timanova A., Barrett J. 1996. Methionine and cysteine metabolism in Fasciola hepatica. International Journal for Parasitology, 26, 1401-1404.
• Barker G.C., Chitwood D.J., Rees H.H. 1990. Ecdysteroids in helminthes and annelids. Invertebrate Reproduction and Development, 18, 1-11.
• Barker G.C., Mercer J.G., Rees H.H., Howells R.E. 1991. The effect of ecdysteroids on the microfilarial production of Brugia pahangi and the control of meiotic reinitiation in the oocytes of Dirofilaria immitis. Parasitology Research, 11, 65-71.
• Barrett J. 1983. Biochemistry of filarial worms. Helminthological Abstracts, Ser. A, Animal and Human Helminthology, 52, 1-18.
• Barrett J., Mendis A.H., Butterworth P.E. 1986. Carbohydrate metabolism in Brugia pahangi (Nematoda: Filarioidea). International Journal for Parasitology, 16, 465-469.
• Behm C.A. 1997. The role of trehalose in the physiology of nematodes. International Journal for Parasitology, 27, 215-229.
• Behm C.A., Bryant C. 1979. Anthelmintic action - a metabolic approach. Veterinary Parasitology, 5, 39-49.
• Belley A., Chadee K. 1995. Eicosanoid production by parasites: From pathogenesis to immunomodulation? Parasitology Today, 11, 327-334.
• Bender D.A. 1985. Amino acid metabolism. Wiley, New York.
• Bhargava K.K., Le Trang N., Cerami A., Eaton J.W. 1983. Effect of arsenical drugs on glutathione metabolism of Litomosoides carinii. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 9, 29-35.
• Bianco A.E., Maizels R.M. 1989. Parasite development and adaptive specialization. Parasitology, 99, Suppl., S113-S123.
• Boreham P.F.L., Atwell R.B. 1988. Dirofilariasis. CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.
• Brophy P.M., Barrett J. 1990a. Glutathione transferase in helminths. Parasitology, 100, 345-349.
• Brophy P.M., Barrett J. 1990b. Detoxification of secondary products of lipid peroxidation in the cytosol of a mouse fibroblast cell line. Biochemistry and Cell Biology, 68, 1288-1291.
• Brophy P.M., Pritchard D.I. 1992. Immunity to helminths: Ready to tip the biochemical balance? Parasitology Today, 8, 419-422.
• Brophy P.M., Pritchard D.I. 1994. Parasitic helminth glutathione S- transferases: an update on their potential as targets for immuno- and chemotherapy. Experimental Parasitology, 79, 89- 96.
• Brown M.S., Goldstein J.L. 1980. Multivalent feedback regulation of HMG-CoA reductase, a control mechanism coordinating isoprenoid synthesis and cell growth. Journal of Lipid Research, 21, 505-517.
• Brownlee D.A., Holden-Dye L., Walker R.J. 1997. Action of the anthelmintic ivermectin on the pharyngeal muscle of the parasitic nematode Ascaris suum. Parasitology, 115, 553- 561.
• Brownlee D.A., Holden-Dye L., Walker R. 2000. The range and biological activity of FMRC amide-related peptides and classical neurotransmitters in nematodes. Advances in Parasitology, 45, 109-180.
• Bueding E., Charms B. 1951. Respiratory metabolism of parasitic helminths without participation of the cytochrome system. Nature, 167, 149.
• Bueding E., Charms B. 1952. Cytochrome c, cytochrome oxidase and succinoxidase activities of helminths. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 196, 615-627.
• Bughio N.I., Faubert G.M., Prichard R. 1993. Characterization and biological activities of anti-Brugia pahangi tubulin monoclonal antibodies. International Journalfor Parasitology, 23, 913-924.
• Callahan H.L., Crouch R.K., James E.R. 1988. Helminth antioxidant enzymes: A protective mechanism against host oxidants? Parasitology Today, 4, 218-225.
• Carlberg I., Mannervik B. 1985. Glutathione reductase. Methods in Enzymology, 13, 484-490.
• Chandra M., Sahay A.N., Pandey D.S., Tripathi R.P., Saxena J.K., Reddy V.J.M., Puerta M.C., Valerga P. 2004. Potential inhibitors of DNA topoisomerases II: ruthenium (II) poly-pyridyl and pyridyl-azine complexes. Journal of Organometallic Chemistry, 689, 2256-2267.
• Chandrashekar R., Mehta K. 2000. Transglutaminase-catalysed reactions in the growth, maturation and development of parasitic nematodes. Parasitology Today, 16, 11-17.
• Chen S.N., Howells R.E. 1981. The uptake in vitro of monosaccharides, disaccharides and nucleic acid precursors by adult Dirofilaria immitis. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 75, 329-334.
• Comley J.C.W. 1985. Isoprenoid biosynthesis in filariae. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 36, Suppl., 10-14.
• Comley J.C.W., Jaffe J.J. 1981. Isoprenoid biosynthesis in adult Brugia pahangi and Dirofilaria immitis. Journal of Parasitology, 67, 609-616.
• Comley J.C.W., Jaffe J.J. 1983. The conversion of exogenous retinol and related compounds into retinyl phosphate mannose by adult Brugia pahangi in vitro. Biochemical Journal, 214, 367- 376.
• Comley J.C.W., Jaffe J.J., Chrin L.R. 1982. Glycosyl transferase activity in homogenates of adult Dirofilaria immitis. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 5, 19-31.
• Comley J.C.W., Jaffe J.J., Chrin L.R., Smith R.B. 1981. Synthesis of ubiquinone 9 by adult Brugia pahangi and Dirofilaria immitis: evidence against its involvement in the oxidation of 5- methyltetrahydrofolate. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 2, 271-283.
• Comley J.C.W., Lancaster A.R. 1983. Filarial HMG-CoA reductase activity and the effect of mevinolin inhibition on filarial isoprenoid biosynthesis. Abstract of a paper presented at the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 4-8 December, San Antonio, Texas.
• Cookson E., Blaxter M.L., Selkirk M.E. 1992. Identification of the major soluble cuticular glycoprotein of lymphatic filarial nematode parasites (gp29) as a secretory homolog of glutathione peroxidase. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 89, 5837-5841.
• Cookson E., Tang L., Selkirk M.E. 1993. Conservation of primary sequence of gp29, the major soluble cuticular glycoprotein, in three species of lymphatic filariae. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 58, 155-159.
• Cooper A.J. 1983. Biochemistry of sulphur-containing amino acids. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 52, 187-222.
• Cox G.N. 1992. Molecular and biochemical aspects of nematode collagens. Journal of Parasitology, 78, 1-15.
• Croll N.A. 1975. Indole alkylamines in the coordination of nematode behavioural activities. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 53, 894- 903.
• Crossgrove K., Laudet V., Maina C.V. 2002. Dirofilaria immitis encodes Di-nhr-7, a putative orthologue of the Drosophila ecdysone-regulated E78 gene. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 119, 169-177.
• Cusack S. 1997. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. Current Opinion in Structural Biology, 7, 881-889.
• Da'dara A.A., Mett H., Walter R.D. 1998. MGBG analogues as potential inhibitors of S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase of Onchocerca volvulus. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 97, 13-19.
• Dissanayake S. 2000. Upregulation of a Raf kinase and a DP-1 family transcription factor in epidermal growth factor (EGF) stimulated filarial parasites. International Journal for Parasitology, 30, 1089-1097.
• Dissanayake S., Xu M., Piessens W.F. 1992. Filarial parasites contain a ras protein of theTC4/Ran/Spil family. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 56, 259-268.
• Driscoll M., Dean E., Reilly E., Bergholz E., Chalfie M. 1989. Genetic and molecular analysis of a Caenorhabditis elegans ß- tubulin that conveys benzimidazole sensitivity. Journal of Cell Biology, 109, 2993-3003.
• Dunn T.S., Raines P.S., Barrett J., Butterworth P.E. 1988. Carbohydrate metabolism in Onchocerca gutturosa and Onchocerca lienalis (Nematoda: Filarioidea). International Journal for Parasitology, 18, 21-26.
• Elkhalifa M.Y., Ghalib H.W., Dafa'Alla T., Williams J.F. 1991. Suppression of human lymphocyte responses to specific and nonspecific stimuli in human onchocerciasis. Clinical and Experimental Immunology, 86, 433-439.
• Fairbairn D. 1958. Trehalose and glucose in helminths and other invertebrates. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 36, 787-795.
• Foster K.E., Burland T.G., Gull K. 1987. A mutant ß-tubulin confers resistant to the action of benzimidazole-carbamate microtubule inhibitors both in vivo and in vitro. European Journal of Biochemistry, 163, 449-455.
• Franke E.D., Riberu W., Wiady I. 1987. In vitro cultivation of third stage larvae of Wuchereria bancrofti to the fourth stage. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 37, 370-375.
• Frayha G.J., Smyth J.D. 1983. Lipid metabolism in parasitic helminths. Advances in Parasitology, 22, 309-387.
• Fuhrman J.A. 1995. Filarial chitinases. Parasitology Today, 11, 259- 261.
• Fuhrman J.A., Lane W.S., Smith R.F., Piessens W.F., Perler F.B. 1992. Transmission-blocking antibodies recognize microfilarial chitinase in brugian lymphatic filariasis. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 89, 1548-1552.
• Gainutsos G., Bennett J.L. 1977. The regional distribution of dopamine and norepinephrine in Schistosoma mansoni and Fasciola hepatica. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 58, 157-159.
• Geary T.G., Nulf S.C., Alexander-Bowman S.J., Mahmoud M., Prichard R.K., Klein R.D. 1998. Cloning and characterization of cDNAs encoding ß-tubulin from Dirofilaria immitis and Onchocerca volvulus. Journal of Parasitology, 84, 356-360.
• Ginger C.D. 1991. Filarial worms: Targets for drugs. Parasitology Today, 10, 262-264.
• Goldings E.A. 1986. Regulation of B cell tolerance by macrophage - derived mediators: Antagonistic effects of prostaglandin E2 and interleukin 1. Journal of Immunology, 136, 817-822.
• Gomez-Bautista M., Barrett J. 1988. Cysteine metabolism in the cestode Hymenolepis diminuta. Parasitology, 97, 149-159.
• Gomez-Escobar N., Gregory W.F., Maizels R.M. 2000. Identification of tgh-2, a filarial nematode homolog of Caenorhabditis elegans daf-7 and human transforming growth factor beta, expressed in microfilarial and adult stage of Brugia rnalayi. Infection and Immunity, 68, 6402-6410.
• Gomez-Escobar N., Lewis E., Maizels R.M. 1998. A novel member of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily from the filarial nematodes Brugia malayi and Brugia pahangi. Experimental Parasitology, 88, 200-209.
• Gooday G.W., Brydon L.J., Chappell L.H. 1988. Chitinase in female Onchocerca gibsoni and its inhibition by allosamidin. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 29, 223-225.
• Goodwin J.S., Ceuppens J. 1983. Regulation of the immune response by prostaglandins. Journal of Clinical Immunology, 3, 295- 315.
• Griffith O.W. 1987. Mammalian sulphur amino acid metabolism: an overview. Methods in Enzymology, 143, 366-376.
• Guenette S., Prichard R.K., Klein R.D., Matlashewski G. 1991. Characterization of a beta-tubulin gene and beta-tubulin gene products of Brugia pahangi. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 44, 153-164.
• Gutierrez-Pena E.J., Knab J., Buttner D.W. 1996. Neutrophil granule proteins: evidence for the participation in the host reaction to skin microfilariae of Onchocerca volvulus after diethylcarbamazine administration. Parasitology, 113, 403-414.
• Hack M.G., Gussin A.E., Lowe M.E. 1962. Comparative lipid bio- chemistry-I. Phosphatides of invertebrates (Porifera to Chordata). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 5, 217-221.
• Hanauske-Abel H.M. 1991. Prolyl 4-hydroxylase, a target enzyme for the drug development: Design of suppressive agents and in vitro effects of inhibitors and proinhibitors. Journal of Hepatology, 13, Suppl. 3, S8-S16.
• Harnett W., Deehan M.R., Houston K.M., Harnett M.M. 1999. Immunomodulatory properties of a phosphorylcholine-containing secreted filarial glycoprotein. Parasite Immunology, 21, 601-608.
• Harnett W., Harnett M.M. 2001. Modulation of the host immune system by phosphorylcholine-containing filarial glycoproteins secreted by parasitic filarial nematodes. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1539, 7-15.
• Hart R.J., Lee R.M. 1966. Cholinesterase activities of various nematode parasites and their inhibition by the organophosphate anthelmintic haloxon. Experimental Parasitology, 18, 332-337.
• Hartmann S., Kyewski B., Sonnenburg B., Lucius R. 1997. A filarial cysteine protease inhibitor down regulates T cell proliferation and enhances interleukin-10 production. European Journal of Immunology, 27, 2253-2260.
• Hartmann S., Lucius R. 2003. Modulation of host immune responses by nematode cystatins. International Journal for Parasitology, 33, 1291-1302.
• Hayashi H., Oya H. 1978. Comparative study on the alternative electron transport pathway in Clonorchis sinensis, Dirofilaria immitis and Angiostrongylus cantonensis. IVth International Congress of Parasitology, 19-26 Warsaw, Poland, 13-14.
• Helm R., Selkirk M.E., Bradley J.E., Burns R.G., Hamilton A.J., Croft J., Maizels R.M. 1989. Localization and immunogenicity of tubulin in the filarial nematode Brugia malayi and Brugia pahangi. Parasite Immunology, 11, 479-502.
• Hutchison W.F., Turner A.C. 1979. Glycerol metabolism in the adult dog heartworm, Dirofilaria immitis. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, B, Comparative Biochemistry, 64, 399-401.
• Hutchison W.F., Turner A.C., Grayson D.P., White H.B. 1976. Lipid analysis of the adult dog heartworm, Dirofilaria immitis. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, B, Comparative Biochemistry, 53, 495-497.
• Isaac R.E., Muimo R., MacGregor A.N. 1990. N-acetylation of serotonin, octopamine and dopamine by adult Brugia pahangi. Science, 216, 1012-1014.
• Jaffe J.J. 1972. Dihydrofolate reductase in parasitic protozoa and helminths. In: Comparative biochemistry of parasites (Ed. H. Van den Bossche). Academic Press, New York, 219-233.
• Jaffe J.J. 1980a. Folate related metabolism. In: Report of the Vth Meeting of the Scientific Working Group on Filariasis. WHO, Geneva, 19-20.
• Jaffe J.J. 1980b. Filarial folate-related metabolism as a potential target for selective inhibitors. In: Host-invader interplay (Ed. H. Van den Bossche). Elsevier/North-Holland, Amsterdam, 605- 614.
• Jaffe J.J., Chrin L.R. 1979a. 10-Formyltetrahydrofolate synthetase activity in normal and Brugia pahangi- infected Aedes aegypti. Journal of Parasitology, 65, 226-232.
• Jaffe J.J., Chrin L.R. 1979b. De novo synthesis of methionine in normal and Brugia pahangi-infected Aedes aegypti. Journal of Parasitology, 65, 550-554.
• Jaffe J.J., Chrin L.R. 1980. Folate metabolism in filariae: enzymes associated with 5,10-methylenetetrahydrofolate. Journal of Parasitology, 66, 53-58.
• Jaffe J.J., Chrin L.R. 1981. Involvement of tetrahydrofolate cofactors in de novo purine ribonucleotide synthesis by adult Brugia pahangi and Dirofdaria immitis. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 2, 259-270.
• Jaffe J.J., Chrin L.R., Smith R.B. 1980. Folate metabolism in filariae. Enzymes associated with 5, 10-methenyltetrahydrofolate and 10-formyltetrahydro folate. Journal of Parasitology, 66, 428-433.
• Jaffe J.J., Doremus H.M. 1970. Metabolic patterns of Dirofilaria immitis microfilariae in vitro. Journal of Parasitology, 56, 254-260.
• Jaffe J.J., McCormack J.J., Meymarian E. 1972. Comparative properties of schistosomal and filarial dihydrofolate reductases. Biochemical Pharmacology, 21, 719-731.
• Jaffe J.J., McCormack J.J., Meymarian E., Doremus H.M. 1977. Comparative activity and properties of lactate dehydrogenase, xanthine dehydrogenase and dihydrofolate reductase in normal and Brugia pahangi-infected Aedes aegypti. Journal of Parasitology, 63, 547-553.
• Jamnadas V., Thomas J. 1979. Metriphonate and organophosphate poisoning. Central African Journal of Medicine, 25, 130.
• Jones W.D., Rothwell T.L.W., Dineen J.K., Griffith D.A. 1974. Studies on the role of histamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine in immunity against the nematode, Trichostrongylus columbriformis II. Amine levels in the intestine of infected guinea pig. International Archives of Allergy and Applied Immunology, 46, 14-27.
• Kaiser L., Lamb V.L., Tithof P.K., Gage D.A., Chamberlin B.A., Watson J.T., Williams J.F. 1992. Dirofilaria immitis: do filarial cyclooxygenase products depress endothelium dependent relaxation in the in vitro rat aorta? Experimental Parasitology, 75, 159-167.
• Kanesa-thasan N., Douglas J.G., Kazura J.W. 1991. Diethylcarbamazine inhibits endothelial and microfilarial prostanoid metabolism in vitro. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 49, 11-19.
• Katiyar D., Tiwari V.K., Tripathi R.P., Reddy V.M., Bhattacharya S.M., Saxena J.K. 2003. Synthesis and antifilarial evaluation of 7-O-acetamidyl-4-alkyl-2H-l-benzopyran-2-ones. Arzneimittelforschung, 53, 857- 862.
• Kivirikko K.I., Mallyla R., Pihlajaniemi T. 1989. Protein hydroxylation: Prolyl 4-hydroxylase, an enzyme with four cosubstrates and a multifunctional subunit. Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology Journal, 3, 1609-1617.
• Köhler P. 1991. The pathways of energy generation in filarial parasites. Parasitology Today, 7, 21-25.
• Kozak E.M., Tate S.S. 1982. Glutathione-degrading enzymes of the microvillus membranes. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 251, 6322-6327.
• Krohne-Ehrich G., Schirmer R.H., Untucht-Grau R. 1977. Glutathione reductase from human erythrocytes. Isolation of the enzyme and sequence analysis of the redox-active peptide. European Journal of Biochemistry, 80, 65-71.
• Kurelec B., Rijavec M. 1966. Amino acid pool of the liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica L.). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 19, 525-531.
• Lacey E. 1988. The role of cytoskeletal protein, tubulin, in the mode of action and mechanism of drug resistance to benzimidazoles. International Journal for Parasitology, 18, 885-936.
• Lacey E., Pritchard R.K. 1986. Interactions of benzimidazoles (BZ) with tubulin from BZ-sensitive and BZ-resistant isolates of Haemonchus contortus. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 19, 171-181.
• Lazdins J., Kron M. 1999. New molecular targets for filariasis drug discovery. Parasitology Today, 15, 305-306.
• Lee R.M., Hodsden M.R. 1963. Cholinesterase activity in Haemonchus contortus and its inhibition by organophosphorus anthelmintics. Biochemical Pharmacology, 12, 1241-1252.
• Lewis J., Wu C., Levine J., Berg H. 1980. Levamisole-resistant mutants of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans appear to lack pharmacological acetylcholine receptors. Neuroscience, 5, 967-989.
• Liebau E., Schönberger O.L., Walter R.D., Henkle-Duhrsen K. 1994a. Molecular cloning and expression of a cDNA encoding glutathione S-transferase from Ascaris suum. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 63, 167-170.
• Liebau E., Walter R.D., Henkle-Duhrsen K. 1994b. Isolation, sequence and expression of an Onchocerca volvulus glutathione S-transferase cDNA. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 63, 305-309.
• Liebau E., Walter R.D., Henkle-Duhrsen K. 1994c. Onchocerca volvulus: Isolation and sequence of a second glutathione S- transferase cDNA. Experimental Parasitology, 79, 68-71.
• Liebau E., Wildenburg G., Brophy P.M., Walter R.D., Henkle- Duhrsen K. 1994d. A novel type of glutathione S-transferase in Onchocerca volvulus. Infection and Immunity, 62, 4762- 4767.
• Liu L.X., Buhlmann J.E., Weller P.F. 1992. Release of prostaglandin E2 by microfilariae of Wuchereria bancrofti and Brugia malayi. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 46, 520-523.
• Liu L.X., Serhan C.N., Weller P.F. 1990. Intravascular filarial parasites elaborate cyclooxygenase-derived eicosanoids. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 172, 993-996.
• Liu L.X., Weiler P.F. 1989. Brugia malayi: microfilarial polyunsaturated fatty acid composition and synthesis. Experimental Parasitology, 69, 198-203.
• Liu L.X., Weller P.F. 1992. Intravascular filarial parasites inhibit platelet aggregation: role of parasite-derived prostanoids. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 89, 1113-1120.
• Lok J.B., Morris R.A., Sani B.P., Shealy Y.F., Donnelly J.J. 1990. Synthetic and naturally occurring retinoids inhibit third- to fourth-stage larval development by Onchocerca lienalis in vitro. Tropical and Medical Parasitology, 41, 169-173.
• Lomaestro B.M., Malone M. 1995. Glutathione in health and disease: Pharmacotherapeutic issues. Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 29, 1263-1273.
• Longworth D.L., Foster D.W., Dvorak A.M., Weller P.F. 1985. Incorporation of arachidonic acid by microfilariae of Brugia malayi. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 152, 1317-1323.
• Longworth D.L., King D.C., Weller P.F. 1987. Rapid uptake and esterification of arachidonic acid and other fatty acids by microfilariae of Brugia malayi. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 23, 275-284.
• Lüersen K., Müller S., Hussein A., Liebau E., Walter R.D. 2000. The γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase of Onchocerca volvulus. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 111, 243-251.
• Lustigman S., Brotman B., Huima T., Castelhano A.L., Singh R.N., Mehta K., Prince A.M. 1995. Transglutaminase-catalysed reaction is important for molting of Onchocerca volvulus third stage larvae. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 39, 1913-1919.
• Lustigman S., Brotman B., Huima T., Prince A.M., McKerrow J.H. 1992. Molecular cloning and characterization of onchocystatin, a cysteine protease inhibitor of Onchocerca volvulus. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 267, 17339-17346.
• Mackenzie C.D., Kron M.A. 1985. Diethylcarbamazine: a review of its action in onchocerciasis, lymphatic filariasis and inflammation. Tropical Diseases Bulletin, 82, 1-37.
• Mahalanabis D., Jalan K.N., Maitra T.K., Agarwal S.R. 1976. Vitamin A absorption in ascariasis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 29, 1372-1375.
• Maizels R.M., Bundy D.A.P., Selkirk M.E., Smith D.F., Anderson R.M. 1993. Immunological modulation and evasion by helminthic parasites in human populations. Nature, 365, 797-804.
• Maizels R.M., Gregory W.F., Kwan-Lim G.E., Selkirk M.E. 1989. Filarial surface antigens: the major 29-kilodalton glycoprotein and a novel 17-200 kilodalton complex from adult Brugia malayi parasites. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 32, 213-227.
• Manoury B., Gregory W.F., Maizels R.M., Watts C. 2001. Bm-CPI- 2, a cystatin homolog secreted by the filarial parasite Brugia malayi, inhibits class II MHC-restricted antigen processing. Current Biology, 11, 447-451.
• Martin R.J. 1996. An electrophysiological preparation of Ascaris suum pharyngeal muscle reveals a glutamate-gated chloride channel sensitive to the avermectin analogue, milbemycin D. Parasitology, 112, 247-252.
• McCarthy J.S., Wieseman M., Tropea J., Kaslow D., Abraham D., Lustigman S., Tuan R., Guderian R.H., Nutman T.B. 2002. Onchocerca volvulus glycolytic enzyme fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase as a target for a protective immune response in humans. Infection and Immunity, 70, 851-858.
• McManus D.P. 1986. Intermediary metabolism in parasitic helminths. International Journal for Parasitology, 17, 79-95.
• Medina-De la Garza C.E., Brattig N.W., Tischendorf F.W., Jarrett J.M. 1990. Serum-dependent interaction of granulocytes with Onchocerca volvulus microfilariae in generalised and chronic hyperreactive onchocerciasis and its modulation by diethylcarbamazine. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 84, 701-706.
• Mehta K., Rao U.R., Vickery A.C., Birckbichler P.J. 1990. Significance of transglutaminase-catalyzed reactions in growth and development of filarial parasite, Brugia malayi. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 173, 1051- 1057.
• Mehta K., Rao U.R., Vickery A.C., Fesus L. 1992. Identification of a novel transglutaminase from the filarial parasite Brugia malayi and its role in growth and development. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 53, 1-15.
• Meister A. 1983. Selective modification of glutathione metabolism. Science, 220, 472-477.
• Mendis A.H., Rose M.E., Rees H.H., Goodwin T.W. 1983. Ecdysteroids in adults of the nematode Dirofilaria immitis. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 9, 209-226.
• Mendis A.H., Townson S. 1985. Evidence for the occurrence of the respiratory electron transport in adult Brugia pahangi and Dipetalonema viteae. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 14, 337-354.
• Middleton K.R., Saz H.J. 1979. Comparative utilization of pyruvate by Brugia pahangi, Dipetalonema viteae and Litomosoides carinii. Journal of Parasitology, 65, 1-7.
• Müller S., Lüchow A., McCann P.P., Walter R.D. 1991. Effect of bis(benzyl)polyamine derivatives on polyamine transport and survival of Brugia pahangi. Parasitology Research, 77, 612- 615.
• Müller S., Walter R.D., Fairlamb A.H. 1995. Differential susceptibility of filarial and human erythrocyte glutathione reductase to inhibition by the trivalent organic arsenical melarsen oxide. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 71, 211-219.
• Müller S., Wittich R.M., Walter R.D. 1988. The polyamine metabolism of filarial worms as chemotherapeutic target. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 250, 737-743.
• Needleman R, Turk J., Jakschik B.A., Morrison A.R., Lefkowith J.B. 1986. Arachidonic acid metabolism. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 55, 69-102.
• Nelson N.F., Saz H.J. 1984. Effects of amoscanate on the utilisation of glucose by Brugia pahangi and Litomosoides carinii. Journal of Parasitology, 70, 194-196.
• Oppenheimer L., Wellner V.P., Griffith O.W., Meister A. 1979. Glutathione synthetase: Purification from rat kidney and mapping of the substrate binding sites. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 254, 5184-5190.
• Orłowski M., Meister A. 1973. γ-Glutamyl cyclotransferase. Distribution, isozymic forms, and specificity. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 248, 2836-2844.
• Pastrana D.V., Raghavan N., FitzGerald P., Eisinger S.W., Metz C., Bucala R., Schleimer R.P., Bickel C., Scott A.L. 1998. Filarial nematode parasites secrete a homologue of the human cytokine macrophage migration inhibitory factor. Infection and Immunity, 66, 5955-5963.
• Pegg A.E., Kameji T., Shirahata A., Stanley B., Madhubala R., Pajunen A. 1988. Regulation of mammalian S-adenosylme- thionine decarboxylase. Advances in Enzyme Regulation, 27, 43-55.
• Pemberton D.J., Franks C.J., Walker R.J., Holden-Dye L. 2001. Characterization of glutamate-gated chloride channels in the pharynx of wild type and mutant Caenorhabditis elegans delineates the role of the subunit GluCl-alpha 2 in the function of the native receptor. Molecular Pharmacology, 59, 1037-1043.
• Pfaff A.W., Schulz-Key H., Soboslay P.T., Taylor D.W., MacLennan K., Hoffmann W.H. 2002. Litomosoides sigmodontis cystatin acts as an immunomodulator during experimental filariasis. International Journal for Parasitology, 32, 171-178.
• Plummer J.L., Smith B.R., Sies S., Bend J.R. 1981. Chemical depletion of glutathione in vivo. Methods in Enzymology, 77, 50-59.
• Powell J.W., Stables J.N., Watt R.A. 1986a. An investigation of the glucose metabolism of Brugia pahangi and Dipetalonema viteae by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 18, 171-182.
• Powell J.W., Stables J.N., Watt R.A. 1986b. An NMR study on the effect of glucose availability on carbohydrate metabolism in Dipetalonema viteae and Brugia pahangi. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 19, 265-271.
• Precious W.Y., Barrett J. 1989. Xenobiotic metabolism in helminths. Parasitology Today, 5, 156-160.
• Prichard R.K. 1973. The fumarate reductase reaction of Haemonchus contortus and the mode of action of some anthelmintics. International Journal for Parasitology, 3, 409-417.
• Raghavan N., Freedman D.O., Fitzgerald P.C., Unnasch T.R., Ottesen E.A., Nutman T.B. 1994. Cloning and characterization of a potentially protective chitinase-like recombinant antigen from Wuchereria bancrofti. Infection and Immunity, 62, 1901-1908.
• Ramp T., Köhler P. 1984. Glucose and pyruvate catabolism in Litomosoides carinii. Parasitology, 89, 229-244.
• Rao U.R., Mehta K., Subrahmanyam D., Vickery A.C. 1991. Brugia malayi and Acanthocheilonema viteae: antifilarial activity of transglutaminase inhibitors in vitro. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 35, 2219-2224.
• Rathaur S. 1980. Study of intermediary metabolism in microfilarial and adult stages of bovine filarial parasite Setaria cervi. PhD Thesis, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India.
• Rathaur S., Anwar N., Ghatak S. 1980. Biochemical composition of microfilarial and adult stages of Setaria cervi. Zeitschrift für Parasitenkunde, 62, 85-93.
• Rathaur S., Kaushal N.A., Ghatak S. 1985. Biogenic amines and their metabolites in microfilariae and adults of Setaria cervi. Indian Journal of Parasitology, 9, 203-205.
• Rew R.S., Saz H.J. 1977. The carbohydrate metabolism of Brugia pahangi microfilariae. Journal of Parasitology, 63, 123-129.
• Ross A.C. 1993a. Cellular metabolism and activation of retinoids: roles of cellular retinoid-binding proteins. Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology Journal, 7, 317- 327.
• Ross A.C. 1993b. Overview of retinoid metabolism. Journal of Nutrition, 123, 346-350.
• Sakuda S., Isogai A., Matsumoto S., Suzuki A. 1987. Search for microbial insect growth regulators II. Allosamidin, a novel insect chitinase inhibitor. Journal of Antibiotics (Tokyo), 40, 296-300.
• Salinas G., Braun G., Taylor D.W. 1994. Molecular characterization and localization of an Onchocerca volvulus pi-class glutathione S-transferase. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 66, 1-9.
• Sani B.P. 1990. Parasite retinoid-binding proteins. Methods in Enzymology, 189, 348-356.
• Sani B.P., Comley J.C.W. 1985. Role of retinoids and their binding proteins in filarial parasites and host tissues. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 36, Suppl. 1, 20-23.
• Sani B.P., Vaid A. 1988. Specific interaction of ivermectin with retinol-binding protein from filarial parasites. Biochemical Journal, 249, 929-932.
• Sani B.P., Vaid A., Comley J.C.W., Montgomery J.A. 1985. Novel retinoid-binding proteins from filarial parasites. Biochemical Journal, 232, 577-583.
• Saxena J.K., Bose S.K., Sen R., Chatterjee R.K., Sen A.B., Ghatak S. 1977. Litomosoides carinii: Biogenic amines in microfilariae and adults. Experimental Parasitology, 43, 239-243.
• Saz H.J. 1981. Biochemical aspects of filarial parasites. Trends in Biochemical Sciences, 6, 117-119.
• Saz H.J., Dunbar G.A. 1975. The effect of stibophen on phosphofructokinases and aldolases of adult filariids. Journal of Parasitology, 61, 794-801.
• Schad V., Phipps R.P. 1989. Prostaglandin E2-dependent induction of B cell unresponsiveness. Role of surface Ig and Fc receptors. Journal of Immunology, 143, 2127-2132.
• Schirmer R.H., Schollhammer T., Eisenbrand G., Krauth-Siegel R.L. 1987. Oxidative stress as a defence mechanism against parasitic infections. Free Radical Research Communications, 3, 3-12.
• Schonemeyer A., Lucius R., Sonnenburg B., Brattig N., Sabat R., Schilling K., Bradley J., Hartmann S. 2001. Modulation of tumor T cell responses and macrophage function by onchocystatin, a secreted protein of the filarial nematode Onchocerca volvulus. Journal of Immunology, 167, 3207-3215.
• Seelig G.F., Meister A. 1982. Cystamine-sepharose: A probe for the active site of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 257, 5092-5096.
• Shahabuddin M., Toyoshima T., Aikawa M., Kaslow D.C. 1993. Transmission-blocking activity of a chitinase inhibitor and activation of malarial parasite chitinase by mosquito protease. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 90, 4266-4270.
• Sharma V., Tekwani B.L., Saxena J.K., Gupta S., Katiyar J.C., Chatterjee R.K., Ghatak S., Shukla O.P. 1991. Polyamine metabolism in some helminth parasites. Experimental Parasitology, 72, 15-23.
• Singh D.L., Rathaur S., Misra S., Chatterjee R.K., Ghatak S., Sen A.B. 1985. Studies on causation of adverse reactions in microfilariaemic host following diethylcarbamazine therapy (Dipetalonema viteae in Mastomys natalensis). Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 36, 21-24.
• Singh R.N., Chandrashekar R., Mehta K. 1995. Purification and partial characterization of a transglutaminase from dog filarial parasite, Dirofdaria immitis. International Journal of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, 27, 1285-1291.
• Singh R.P., Saxena J.K., Ghatak S., Shukla O.P., Wittich R.M., Walter R.D. 1989. Polyamine metabolism in Setaria cervi. Parasitology Research, 75, 311-315.
• Singh S.N., Srivastava A.K., Chatterjee R.K. 1996. Gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase in adult Setaria cervi and Acanthocheilonema viteae and the effect of inhibitors. Journal of Parasitic Diseases, 20, 163-166.
• Srivastava A.K., Jaffe J.J. 1985. Phosphatidylcholine synthesis in adult Dirofdaria immitis females. International Journal for Parasitology, 15, 27-31.
• Srivastava A.K., Jaffe J.J. 1986. Phosphatidylserine synthesis in adult Dirofdaria immitis females. International Journal for Parasitology, 16, 9-11.
• Srivastava A.K., Jaffe J.J. 1987. Phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylglycerol and cardiolipin synthesis in adult Dirofdaria immitis females. International Journal for Parasitology, 17, 917- 920.
• Srivastava A.K., Jaffe J.J., Lambert R.A. 1985. Phosphatidylethanolamine synthesis in adult Dirofdaria immitis females. International journal for Parasitology, 15, 429-433.
• Srivastava A.K., Walter R.D., Jaffe J.J. 1987. Synthetic pathways of glycerophospholipids in adult Brugia pahangi and Brugia patei. International Journal for Parasitology, 17, 1321- 1328.
• Srivastava D.K., Roy T.K., Shukla O.P. 1980. Polyamines of helminths. Indian Journal of Parasitology, 4, 187-189.
• Srivastava V.M.L., Chatterjee R.K., Sen A.B., Ghatak S., Krishna Murti C.R. 1970. Glycolysis in Litomosoides carinii, the filarial parasite of cotton rat. Experimental Parasitology, 28, 176-185.
• Srivastava V.M.L., Ghatak S. 1971. Glycolytic and carbondioxide metabolising enzymes in Chandlerella hawkingi. Indian Journal of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 8, 108-111.
• Srivastava V.M.L., Saz H.J., deBruyn B. 1988. Comparisons of glucose and amino acid use in adults and microfilariae of Brugia pahangi. Parasitology Research, 75, 1-6.
• Storey D.M. 1982. Vitamin A deficiency and the development of Litomosoides carinii (Nematoda, Filarioidea) in cotton rats. Zeitschrift fur Parasitenkunde, 67, 309-315.
• Sturchler D., Hanck A., Weiser H., Marn U., Weiss N. 1985. Retinol deficiency and Dipetalonema viteae infection in the hamster. Journal of Helminthology, 59, 201-210.
• Sturchler D., Wyss F., Hanck A. 1981. Retinol, onchocerciasis and Onchocerca volvulus. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 75, 617.
• Subrahmanyam D. 1967. Glyceral ether phospholipids and plasmalogens of filarial parasite Litomosoides carinii. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry, 45, 1195-1197.
• Subrahmanyam D. 1983. Problems in filariasis: current approaches in development of antifilarials. In: Tropical parasitoses and parasitic zoonoses (Ed. J.D. Dunsmore). Proceedings of the 10th International Conference of World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology, Perth, Australia, 107-123.
• Subrahmanyam D. 1987. Antifilarials and their mode of action. Ciba Foundation Symposium, 127, 246-264.
• Svensson F., Kockum I., Persson L. 1993. Diethylglyoxal bis(guanylhydrazone), a potent inhibitor of mammalian S-adenosyl- methionine decarboxylase. Effects on cell proliferation and polyamine metabolism in LI 210 leukemia cells. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, 124, 141-147.
• Tabor C.W., Tabor H. 1984. Polyamines. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 53, 749-790.
• Tang L., Prichard R.K. 1989. Characterization of tubulin from Brugia malayi and Brugia pahangi. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 32, 145-152.
• Tang L., Smith V.P., Gounaris K., Selkirk M.E. 1996. Brugia pahangi: the cuticular glutathione peroxidase (gp29) protects heterologous membranes from lipid peroxidation. Experimental Parasitology, 82, 329-332.
• Tate S.S., Meister A. 1985. γ-Glutamyl transpeptidase from kidney. Methods in Enzymology, 113, 400-419.
• Tiwari V.K., Tewari N., Katiyar D., Tripathi R.P., Arara K., Gupta S., Ahmad R., Srivastava A.K., Khan M.A., Murthy P.K., Walter R.D. 2003. Synthesis and antifilarial evaluation of N¹,Nn- xylofuranosylated diaminoalkanes. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry, 11, 1789-1800.
• Tripathi R.P., Rastogi S.K., Kundu B., Saxena J.K., Reddy V.J.M., Srivastava S., Chandra S., Bhaduri A.P. 2001. Identification of inhibitors of DNA topoisomerases II from a synthetic library of glycoconjugates. Combinatorial Chemistry and High Throughput Screening, 4, 237-244.
• Tripp C., Frank R.S., Selkirk M.E., Tang L., Grieve M.M., Frank G.R., Grieve R.B. 1998. Dirofdaria immitis: molecular cloning and expression of a cDNA encoding a selenium-independent secreted glutathione peroxidase. Experimental Parasitology, 88, 43-50.
• Turner A.C., Hutchison W.F. 1979. Lipid synthesis in the adult dog heartworm, Dirofdaria immitis. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, B, Comparative Biochemistry, 64, 403-405.
• Ueda T., Sawada T. 1968. Fatty acid and sugar compositions of helminths. Japanese Journal of Experimental Medicine, 38, 145-147.
• Unnasch T.R., Bradley J., Beauchamp J., Tuan R., Kennedy M.W. 1999. Characterization of a putative nuclear receptor from Onchocerca volvulus. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 104, 259-269.
• Van den Bossche H., de Nollin S. 1973. Effects of mebendazole on the absorption of low molecular weight nutrients by Ascaris suum. International Journal for Parasitology, 3, 401-407.
• Walker J., Barrett J. 1991a. Cystathionine ß-synthase and γ-cystathionase in helminths. Parasitology Research, 77, 709-713.
• Walker J., Barrett J. 1991b. Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate dependent enzymes in the nematode Nippostrongylus brasiliensis. International Journal for Parasitology, 21, 641 -649.
• Walker J., Barrett J. 1997. Parasite sulphur amino acid metabolism. International Journal for Parasitology, 27, 883-897.
• Walter R.D. 1988. Polyamine metabolism of filarial and allied parasites. Parasitology Today, 4, 18-20.
• Walter R.D., Albiez E.J. 1981. Inhibition of NADP-linked enzyme from Onchocerca volvulus and Dirofdaria immitis by suramin. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 4, 53-60.
• Walter R.D., Ossikovski E., Albiez E.J. 1985. Dolichol kinase from Onchocerca volvulus and Ascaris suum. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 14, 211-217.
• Walter R.D., Schulz-Key H. 1980. Onchocerca volvulus: effect of suramin on lactate dehydrogenase and malate dehydrogenase. Tropenmedizin und Parasitologic, 31, 55-58.
• Walter R.D., Van den Bossche H. 1980. Actions of suramin. In: Report of the Fifth Meeting of the Scientific Working Group on Filariasis. WHO, Geneva.
• Wang E.J., Saz H.J. 1974. Comparative biochemical studies of Litomosoides carinii, Dipetalonema viteae and Brugia pahangi adults. Journal of Parasitology, 60, 316-321.
• Warbrick E.V., Barker G.C., Rees H.H., Howells R.E. 1993. The effect of invertebrate hormones and potential hormone inhibitors on the third larval moult of the filarial nematode, Dirofdaria immitis, in vitro. Parasitology, 107, 459-463.
• Werf P.A.D., Griffith O.W., Meister A. 1975. 5-Oxo-L-prolinase (L-pyroglutamate hydrolase) purification and properties. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 250, 6686-6692.
• Weston K., Youchem J., Greenwald I. 1989. A Caenorhabditis elegans cDNA that encodes a product resembling the rat glutathione S-transferase P subunit. Nucleic Acids Research, 17, 2138.
• WHO 1997a. Lymphatic filariasis: Reasons for hope, Document No. WHO/CTD/FIL/97.4, Geneva.
• WHO 1997b. Lymphatic filariasis elimination. Report of a meeting of the principals for the further enhancement of public/private partnership. WHO, Geneva.
• WHO 2000. Onchocerciasis (river blindness) revised. February 2000, Fact Sheet No. 95, 1-4.
• Willis A.L. 1987. CRC handbook of eicosanoids. In: Prostaglandins and related lipids. Vols 1 and 2. CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton.
• Wilson W.R., Tuan R.S., Shepley K.J., Freedman D.O., Greene B.M., Awadzi K., Unnasch T.R. 1994. The Onchocerca volvulus homologue of the multifunctional polypeptide protein disulfide isomerase. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 68, 103-117.
• Wittich R.M., Kilian H.D., Walter R.D. 1987. Polyamine metabolism in filarial worms. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology, 24, 155-162.
• Wolf G. 1991. The intracellular vitamin A-binding proteins: and overview of their functions. Nutrition Reviews, 49, 1-12.
• Wolff K.M., Scott A.L. 1995. Brugia malayi: Retinoic acid uptake and localization. Experimental Parasitology, 80, 282-290.
• Worthington D.J.,Rosemeyer M.A. 1974. Human glutathione reductase: purification of the crystalline enzyme from erythrocytes. European Journal of Biochemistry, 48, 167-177.
• Yates D.M., Portillo V., Wolstenholme A.J. 2003. The avermectin receptors of Haemonchus contortus and Caenorhabditis elegans. International Journal for Parasitology, 33, 1183-1193.
• Zahner H., Sani B.P., Shealy Y.F., Nitschmann A. 1989. Antifilarial activities of synthetic and natural retinoids in vitro. Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 40, 322-326.
• Zang X., Maizels R.M. 2001. Serine protease inhibitors from nematodes and the arms race between host and pathogen. Trends in Biochemical Sciences, 26, 191-197.
• Zang X., Yazdanbaksh M., Jiang H., Kanost M.R., Maizels R.M. 1999. A novel serpin expressed by blood-borne microfilariae of the parasitic nematode Brugia pahangi inhibits human neutrophil serine proteinases. Blood, 94, 1418-1428.
• Zhang L.P., Maiorino M., Roveri A., Ursini F. 1989. Phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase: specific activity of tissue of rats of different age and comparison with other glutathione peroxidases. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1006, 140-143.